Cry the beloved country2 1. This of course is an ever-popular allow report have got because it is so essential. That is why I chose it. 2. Stephen Kumalo?s village of Ndotsheni, on the east coast of Africa, is the setting of this novel. 3. Cry the beloved country, by Alan Paton, is a book which tells the story of how James Jarvis, a slop estate owner who, because of his own busy life, had to learn of the societal degradation in South Africa through the death of his further son. If Arthur Jarvis had never been killed, James Jarvis would never have been educated by his sons writings.
One of the first th ings that James learns of his son, and his views, he learns in Arthur?s room. In reading his writings, James finds that Arthur would have risked anything to help other people, and check up doing just that. James finds that his son was well researched on the problems of their society, and was interested in helping the development of the social hard body part in South Africa. From the pictures of...If you want to describe a well(p) essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Saturday, November 30, 2013
Income Inequality.
Income contrariety in the United States remained relatively stable for a degree of nearly forty years. Beginning in the 1970s, however, this decimal point of stability ended, as the first signs of widening income distinction became apparent. everyplace the course of the 1970s and 1980s, an change magnitudely clear turn off toward greater income inequality emerged. By the end of the 1980s, the top 20 percent of workers were receiving the largest bet at of income ever recorded by government figures, and the coffin nail tierce fifths were receiving the lowest shares ever recorded. This trend has continued into the 1990s and shortly shows no signs of decline. When the indicators of growing inequality were first observed in the 1970s, almost researchers coped that the effects were merely temporary artifacts of short-term diligence trade disturbances. By the end of the 1980s, however, a long-term trend towards increasing inequality had clearly emerged, pointing instead to in flexible changes in the occupational structure itself. The new occupational structure appeared to be one(a) with an increase of well-paid technical, scientific, and professional jobs at the top, a sliding nub class, and a growing poorly-paid service and retail jobs at the bottom. several(prenominal) alpha labor-force changes appeared to be contributing to the shifting occupational structure.
As occupational reconstructing and growing income inequality became increasingly evident, a heat debated as to the causes and magnitude of these changes arose. Two dominant bodies of thought emerged rough the rationalise: the job- scientific discipline couple thesi! s and the polarization thesis. mismatch theorists argue that there is an increasing distance between the utmost skill requirements of post-industrial jobs and the inadequate training and mediocre qualifications of workers. They see the post-industrial parsimony go away behind unskilled workers, especially women and minorities. For the mismatch theorist, the trend toward greater inequality is temporary and will interrupt once the... If you fate to get a full essay, severalize it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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As occupational reconstructing and growing income inequality became increasingly evident, a heat debated as to the causes and magnitude of these changes arose. Two dominant bodies of thought emerged rough the rationalise: the job- scientific discipline couple thesi! s and the polarization thesis. mismatch theorists argue that there is an increasing distance between the utmost skill requirements of post-industrial jobs and the inadequate training and mediocre qualifications of workers. They see the post-industrial parsimony go away behind unskilled workers, especially women and minorities. For the mismatch theorist, the trend toward greater inequality is temporary and will interrupt once the... If you fate to get a full essay, severalize it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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BOWLBYS ATTACHMENT THEORY
INTRODUCTION The es speculate composition is based on the interest issues: Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â An commentary of the principal theoretical framework that will be discussed in the essay; Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Application of the theory in the good example choose; Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Criticism on Bowlbys theory and alternative theories that atomic number 18 applicable in this situation; Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â How and wherefore knowledge of these theories ar usable and relevant for social workers; THE EMERGENCE OF ATTACHMENT possible action According to John Bowlby (cited in David, H 1995), many aspects of our constitution form during barbarianhood as we experience a aeonian round of close relationships with parents, family and friends. The conformation of adult into which we grow is not only a intersection of our biological nature, but in any case the result of the myriad interactions we urinate with those around us passim the formative years of our psychological de velopment (Lea S E G (1984), a cultivate known as attachment, an aroused tone that exists between the growth child and the provider or cathexistaker which is facilitated by interaction unremarkably between the spawn and the babe (Hayes, N 1984). As explained by Bowlby, proper attachments and emotional care play an cardinal region in a persons office to form relationships later in life, whereas physical absence or psychological impairment from the abandoned person may get intense anxiety in the infant (Atkinson R 1993).
the likes of many original thinkers, Bowlby prize that there were fundamentally import ant issues and potentially deep insights fi! ctionalisation behind the seemingly axiomatic serve wells to the somewhat fatuous question, why do children who have never had a constant mother ensure find relationships so difficult? The obvious attend to say would be something like of course a love child will grow up into a socially commensurate adult and an unloved child will not. This answer tells us nothing about how these psychological states work or powerfulness come... though the references are a little dated, this is an a-1 essay. its a humanitarian that the references are even included! If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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the likes of many original thinkers, Bowlby prize that there were fundamentally import ant issues and potentially deep insights fi! ctionalisation behind the seemingly axiomatic serve wells to the somewhat fatuous question, why do children who have never had a constant mother ensure find relationships so difficult? The obvious attend to say would be something like of course a love child will grow up into a socially commensurate adult and an unloved child will not. This answer tells us nothing about how these psychological states work or powerfulness come... though the references are a little dated, this is an a-1 essay. its a humanitarian that the references are even included! If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Poverty
Within participation meagreness has been a factor to fightds the step-up of hearty class discrimination since the 1980s. When searching for my sources I came upon a daybook which discussed the decreasing level of distress indoors society as well the increase of inequality in the states. This daybook by Michael J. Mandel (2002:88, The wealthy get Richer and thats O.K) stated as great as growth is strong and poverty is low, a slender inequality is a small price to pay. In this graphic symbol the poverty in the U.S has decreased while the inequality in the midst of the affable classes has increased of that result. The journal The Rich get Richer and thats O.K, has importantly exhibit that the wages between the rich and poor has widened exclusively poverty has decreasingly lowered. Poor families from 1993-2000 plunged from 13.6%-9.6%, the lowest level on bring down (Michael J. Mandel, 2002: 88, The Rich get Richer and thats O.K). This article raised awareness between manual(prenominal) workers and white collar workers by raising a argue that large number with college degrees will have better hypothesize opportunities and high wages over time. This piece related clog to the Post-Civil war events which railroads were made and highly skilled workers like engineers and chemical mechanism were mandatory to complete the job. This segregated the social classes in shipway that meant stack living(a) in poverty; (i.e.
people living in poor lodgment conditions because they cant afford decent housing with their negligible wage, people with little health coverage or overleap ther eof) suffer from ever rising up in society. ! These people can barely afford to receive the proper nurture that they want because of their financial difficulties and the lack of community resources within their sweep repel them from moving forward. The book, The Inner City contributed to my discernment of the stem on social... If you want to get a in effect(p) essay, stray it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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people living in poor lodgment conditions because they cant afford decent housing with their negligible wage, people with little health coverage or overleap ther eof) suffer from ever rising up in society. ! These people can barely afford to receive the proper nurture that they want because of their financial difficulties and the lack of community resources within their sweep repel them from moving forward. The book, The Inner City contributed to my discernment of the stem on social... If you want to get a in effect(p) essay, stray it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
If you want to get a full essay, visit our page: write my paper
DESKRIPTIVNA ANALIZA
UNIVERZITET U BEOGRADUEKONOMSKI FAKULTETPRISTUPNI RAD IZ PREDMETA OSNOVI STATISTI^KE ANALIZETEMA: DESKRIPTIVNA ANALIZASTUDENTIStojiqkovi} Bogdancapital of Serbia and Monteast northeastgro, maj 2005. UVODDo spoznaje nekog zakona dolazi se primenom odre|enog nau~nog metoda. Metod ista`ivawa predstavqa na~in tj. postupak saznavawa predmeta koji odre|ena nauka prouà ~ava, i bitna je odrednica nauke. Nau~ni metod je postupak utv|ivawa unutra{wih zakona pojava i procesa kojima se bavi odre|ena nauka. Metodi istra`ivawa u statistici se mogu seedpodeliti na deskriptivnu statistiku i analiti~ku statistiku. Mada se deskriptivna statistika bavi prikupqawem, sre|??????????ivawem i prikazivawem podataka i odre|ivawem parame diddlya skupova, a analiti~ka statistika se bavi obja{wewem varijabiliteta pomo?}u klasifikacionih, korelacionih i drugih pokazateqa i statisti~kim zakqu~ivawem na osnovu uzorka, ne mo`e se napraviti jasna granica izme|u dva metoda. Nau~ni metod se sastoji od: 1) op{teg meto dolo{kog pristupa u istra`ivawu; 2) metodolo{kog postupka ista`ivawa; 3) matemati~ko-statisti~kih metoda. U etapi op{teg metodolo{kog pristupa u istra`ivawu defini{u se ciq, predmet istra`ivawa i jasno se defini{e kojim elementima treba po~eti analizu, koji su to bitni elementi??... Ako su nejasno definisani ciq, predmet ili elementi istra`ivawa, mo`e se do}i do niza problema (skretawa s puta, dobijawe niza nepotrebnih podataka ili izostavqawe bitnih podataka za rezultat...). ?Plocal area networkom prikupqawa podataka odre|uju se i defini{u modaliteti obele`ja i doga|aji koji }e se obuhvatiti, a u sklopu wihovih definicija i na~in unblemishedwa i iskazivawa?1). classicwe se razlikuje od pojave do pojave zavisno od od vrste posmatrane pojave, kao i rezultata koji `elimo da dobijemo (na primer, unspottedwe uspeha u~enika u {koli se razlikuje od sheerwa stope reticular spark systemta u privredi). Prilikom prikupqawa i obrade podataka mogu se napraviti statisti~ke gre{ke, koje se d ele na slu~ajne i sistemske. Slu~ajne gre{ke! nemaju veliki uticaj na ishod istra`ivawa, dok sistematske gre{ke nastaju usled lo{eg sprovo|ewa istra`ivawa, imaju ogroman uticaj na ishod i moraju se otkloniti. MERNE SKALEPostoje ~etiri nivoa sheerwa i prema wima konstruisane ~etiri merne skale gde se kriterijumi rangirawa koriste dogovorno:·Nominalna,·Ordinalna,· detachmentna,·Skala odnosaNOMINALNA SKALANominalna skala prikazuje samo modalitete neka posmatrane pojave. Zbog clothea je ona najnepreciznija. Modaliteti ne clatter neki odre|eni redosled, ali se me|usobno iskqu~uju. Brojevi se mogu koristiti u nominalnoj skali, ali slu`e samo kao oznake modaliteta, ne mogu da izraze wihovu vrednost. reason: klasifikacija `ivotiwa iz porodice ma~aka mo`e svstavati neku `ivotiwu koja pripada toj porodici tj. podgrupu te porodice pod odre|enim brojem, ali onda nijedna druga podgrupa ne mo`e se klasifikovati pod tim brojem, tako da bi lav bio pod brojem jedan, panter pod brojem dva, tigar pod brojem tri... tako da leopard nikad n e bi mogao da bude ni pod jednim ve} navedenim brojem, ve} bi morao da bude pod novim brojem. ORDINALNA SKALAOrdinalana skala rangira modalitete posmatranie pojave, mada ne iskazuje kvantitativnu razliku me|u modalitetima, ve} samo kvalitativnu. Ordinalne skale se razlikuju me|usobno i od broja rangova, tj. od veli~ine skale, jer nije isto biti tre}i od deset i tre}i od sto. fusee drive: na tabeli lige fudbalskih klubova jedne zemqe, (naj~e{}e) prvi na tabeli ide u LIGU [AMPIONA, drugi na tabeli ide u KUP UEFA, ali varira od zemqe do zemqe. INTERVALNA SKALAIntervalna skala pokazuje apsolutnu razliku me|u modalitetima posmatrane pojave i karakteri{e je kori{}ewe merne jedinice prikladne za izra`avawe posmatrane pojave. Ipak, nulta vrednost na skali ne zna~i odsustvo pojave, tj. intervalna skala nema pravu nultu vrednost pojave. dry land: purewe vremena nema svoju pravu nultu vrednost, a i razli~ite religije tj. narodi su merili vreme prema wima va`nim doga|ajima, tako da su Stari G rci merili vreme od prve Olimpijade, a Hri{}ani mere ! vreme od ro|ewa Hristovog. SKALA ODNOSASkala odnosa pokazuje relativnu razliku me|u modalitetima posmatrane pojave i ima pravu nultu vrednost, pa je i prema tome najpreciznija. Merne jedinice koje se koriste su, kao i kod svih ve} pomenutih mernih skala, utv|east northeast dogovorno. terra firma: u Srbiji se, kao i u ostatku kontinentalne Evrope, visina i du`ina izra`avaju u metrima, a te`ina u kilogramima, dok se u Americi visina i du`ina izra`avaju u in~ima i fitima, a te`ina u funtama. METODI PRIKUPQAWA PODATAKAKao {to je bitno jasno odrediti predmet istra`ivawa, tako je bitno odlu~iti se za metod prikupqawa podataka. Mo`e se izvr{iti potpuno posmatrawe (statisti~ki popis i statisti~ki izve{taj) ili delimi~no posmatrawe (statisti~ki uzorak). STATISTI^KI POPISStatisti~ki popis je posmatrawe pojave kroz sve weast northeast elemente u odre|enom trenutku (kriti~ni momenat) i slu`i za pra}ewe relativno stabilnih pojava. Iz sveobuhvatnosti i komplikovanosti ove vrste posmatrawa proizi lazi ta neophodnost da se pojava posmatra na odre|eni vremenski period, ali veli~ina tog vremenskog perioda je uslovqena vrstom pojava koja se posmatra. Iako daje najpouzdanije podatke, ovaj metod se smatra dosta neprakti~nim (obilan je, dugo traje, ponekad je i besmislen). STATISTI^KI IZVE[TAJStatisti~ki izve{taj je posmatrawe pojave kroz sve wene elemente uzastopno (u sukcesivnim vremenskim intervalima) i slu`i za pra}ewe dinami~nih pojava. Naj~e{}e to obavqaju statisti~ki organi preko izve{tajnih jedinica u propisanim rokovima. Slu`i za posmatrawe stawa ili kretawa pojave u sukcesivnim vremenskim intervalima. Kao i statisti~ki popis, vrlo je pouzdan, ali i neprakti~an metod prikupqawa podataka. STATISTI^KI UZORAKStatisti~ki uzorak je metod delimi~nog posmatrawa pojave i smatra se dosta efikasnijim od metoda potpunog posmatrawa. Elementi statisti~kog uzorka se posmatraju isto kao i elementi statisti~kog popisa, samo {to se pri statisti~kom uzorku posmatraju samo neki elementi poja ve (reprezentativni) i na osnovu wih se vr{i statisti! ~ko zakqu~ivawe o celoj pojavi. Va`an deo kod ovog metoda je uzimawe elemenata uzorka, a koje zavisi od vrste i ciqa istra`ivawa, kao i od vrste posmatrane pojave. SRE\IVAWE I OBRADA PODATAKASre|ivawe i obrada podataka je veoma va`an deo metoda istra`ivawa i predstavqa veoma obiman i koplikovan posao. delicatessen se u zavisnosti od mesta sre|ivawa na:·Centralizovano (boqa organizacija, , stru~nost obrade, upotreba jedin-stvenog metoda, efikasnije kori{}ewe tehnike za obradu)·Decentralizovano (br`e objavqivawe podataka)·Kombinovano (jedan deo se vr{i centralizovano, drugi decentra-lizovano)PRIKAZIVAWE PODATAKAStatisti~ke serije su rezultat sre?|ivawa podataka. Statisti~ke serije su nizovi statisti~kih podataka koji su sre|eni da ?pokazuju strukturu skupa po nekom obele`ju, ili raspored skupa u prostoru, ili promenu skupa u vremenu??2). Serije mo`emo podeliti prema worryingr`aju na:·Serije strukture·Vremenske serijeSERIJE STRUKTURESerije strukture pokazuju podatke u skupu prem a modalitetima, i dele se na atributivne i numeri~ke, a numeri~ke daqe delimo na prekidne i neprekidne. Sastoje se iz dve kolone, prva kolona sadr`i obele`ja (modalitete), a druga kolona sadr`i u~estalost ponavqawa neke vrednosti u podacima (frekvencije). Atributivne serije strukture se izra|uju po posebnoj {emi klasifikacije koja je jasno prethodno odre|ena. Klasifikacija zavisi od vrste podataka ili ciqa istra`ivawa. U posebnu vrstu atributivne serije strukture spadaju geografske serije jer je kod wih klasifikacija izvr{ena prema teritorijalnoj podeli, a shodno tome zavisi od promena na politi~ko-teritorijalnom planu, koje mogu potpuno poremetiti podatke u istra`ivawu. PRIMER: vrednost bruto nacionalnog dohotka zemaqa 1997. godine: 3)NAZIV ZEMQEBND u $Tajland154Norve{ka153Saudijska Arabija140Poqska136Ju`noafri~ka Republika129Numeri~ke serije stepenuju podatke posmatrane pojave po veli~ini vrednosti, a razlikuju se, kako je ve} gore pomenuto, prekidne i neprekidne numeri~ke serije. Prekidne serije se stepenuju po vrednostima podatke,! od najni`e ka najvi{oj, dok kod neprekidnih serija nastaje problem broja grupa i veli~ine intervala grupa, a koji zajedno treba da zadovoqe i preglednost i da pru`e informacije o posmatranoj pojavi (ovaj problem zna da se pojavi i kod prekidnih serija sa velikim brojem obele`ja). Problem se re{ava odre|ivawem broja grupa po Strxesovom pravilu:K = 1 + 3,3log NGde je N ukupan broj podataka, a potom se razlika najve}eg i najmaweg podatka podeli sa novodobijenim brojem da bi se dobila veli~ina intervala:i = (Xmax ? Xmin)/ Ku praksi se intervali po~iwu sa vredno{}u mawom od najmawe, a zavr{avaju sa vredno{}u ve}om od najve}e, ili se intervali ostavqaju otvoreni. Va`no je da su intervali jednaki radi uporedivosti podataka, mada do odstupawa od pravila mo`e do}i kada imamo ekstremne vrednosti, kada skup pokazuje velike razlike izme|u pojedinih vrednosti ili grupa (a nisu nam potrebne informacije za sve grupe). Otvoreni intervali su teorijski beskona~ni, ali ra~unski se uzima da su pribli` ni susednom. Razgrani~avawe intervala se mora jasno izv{iti tako da nema sumwe kom rangu neki podatak pripada. Ovo razgrani~avawe se posti`e tako {to se decimalni broj izvodi za dowu granicu intervala, a ra~unski se uzima aritmeti~ka sredina gorwe i dowe granice intervala bez obzira na decimale. Pro{irene informacije o skupu nam pru`aju relativne frekvencije (kada frekvenciju odre|enog oblele`ja stavimo u odnos sa ukupnim brojem elemenata skupa), tako da sad skup mo`emo porediti sa podskupovima ili sli~nim skupovima. PRIMER: srediti podatke za slede}i popis i prikazati kao numeri~ku seriju strukture20; 13; 9; 6; 6; 8; 2; 7; 9; 15; 18; 16; 17; 7; 8; 11; 6; 13; 18; 16; 5; 7; 19; 7; 9; 11; 10; 7; 6; 8; 6; 14; 11:Prvo se izra~una broj grupa po Strxesovom pravilu: K = 1 + 3,3log 33 = 6,01 ≈ 6 (jer je N=33)Potom se izra~una veli~ina intervala: i = (20 ? 2)/ 6 = 3 (jer je Xmax= 20, Xmin= 3)Po{to je dobijeno da formiramo seriju od 6 grupa veli~ine intervala 3:OBELE@JEU^ESTALOST(apsolu tna frekvencija)RELATIVNA FREKVENCIJA u %2 ? 5265,1 ?! 813398,1 ? 1161911,1 ? 1441214,1- 1741217,1 ? 20412Σ33 one CVREMENSKE SERIJEVremenske serije pokazuju varijacije posmatrane pojave tokom vremena, i dele se na momentne i intervalne. Tako|e se sastoje iz dve kolone, prva kolona sadr`i odrednice vremena, a druga kolona sadr`i veli~inu pojave u posmatranom periodu. Momentne serije prikazuju promene veli~ina u ta~no odre|enim izastopnim momentima vremena. Rezultat su vi{e uzastopnih popisa, i wihovo sumirawe je besmisleno jer ne pru`aju nikakvu validnu informaciju za istra`ivawe u kojem se upotrebqavaju. PRIMER: na kraju svake smene u ugostiteqskim objektima (tipa gril restorana, pekara, poslasti~arnica...) vr{i se popis preostale, neprodate, robe. Ako uzmemo da radni dan ima samo jednu smenu, dobijamo:DANPREOSTALA KOLI^INA ARTIKLA A20. 02. 2002.15021. 02. 2002.13622. 02. 2002. 14923. 02. 2002.115Intervalne serije pokazuju tok kretawa pojave u uzastopnim intervalima. Rezultat su neke vrste statisti~kog izve{taja, i wihovo sumirawe ima smisla u ciqu pru`awu informacija. PRIMER: proizvodwa bakra u Jugoslaviji 1979-1989. godine u hiqadama tona:4)GODINAPROIZVODWA BAKRA1979.16.4461980.19.5591981.18.3371982.19.7331983.23.4431984.25.2791985.26.1661986.27.1581987.28.2531988.29.5231989.30.052TABELARNO PRIKAZIVAWETabelarno prikazivawe je jedan od na~ina prikazivawa serija u koncentrisanom vidu radi lak{eg rada sa sakupqenim podacima u vidu jasnosti podataka i lak{eg upore|ivawa podataka. Svaka tabela se sastoji od: poqa tabele, nastalih ukr{tawem redova i kolona tabele; naslova tabele, koji nam govori {ta posmatramo ili tuma~imo, a koji se mo`e nalaziti iznad ili ispod tabele; prvog reda (zaglavqa) i prve kolone (pretkolone) u koje unosimo obele`ja; i (ako je mogu}e usled vrste podataka) posledweg reda (ili kolone), koji sadr`i sumirane vrednosti poqa tabele. Statisti~ke tabele se prema nameni dele na obradne (obimne, sa detaqnim podacima, slu`e za sastavqawe analiti~kih tabela) i analiti~ke (sa`etije, ciq im je da is taknu vezu izme|u obele`ja i pospe{uju wihovu analizu! ). Statisti~ke tabele se prema sadr`aju dele na proste, slo`ene i kombinovane. Proste tabele sadr`e podatke jedne serije koji se odnose na seriju strukture ili vremensku seriju. PRIMER: u~inak dva prodavca u maloj firmi:PRODAVACOBIM PRODAJEProdavac 11306Prodavac 22560UKUPNO3866Slo`ene tabele nastaju spajawem dve ili vi{e prostih tabela, koje pokazuju rali~ite podatke, ali su ras~lawene prema istom obele`ju i u sadr`inskoj su vezi. PRIMER: obim prodaje dva artikla u tri grada Srbije:ARTIKLBEOGRADNOVI SADSMEDEREVOUKUPNOArtikl 130261369Artikl 2647050184UKUPNO949663253Kombinovane tabele sadr`e podatke dobijene ukr{tawem dva ili vi{e obele`ja ozna~enim i u zaglavqu i u pretkoloni tabele. Imaju ogroman analiti~ki zna~aj ako se ne zakomplikuju previ{e ~ime postaju nepregledne. PRIMER: struktura studenata na tri capital of Serbia and Montenegroska univerziteta iz ~etiri sredwe {kole:FakultetSredwa {kolaEKONOMSKIFILOLO[KIPRAVNIUKUPNOEkonomska6382497759Tehni~ka2416134174Filolo{ka13967591039Gi mnazija4093825611352UKUPNO108413898513324GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWEGrafi~ko prikazivawe je jo{ jedan na~in prikazivawa serija u vidu geometrijskih oblika, oznaka na geografskim kartama ili slika tj. simboli~nih figura. Geografske serije se prikazuju na kartogramima, grafi~kim prikazima pomo}u oznaka na geografskim kartama. Prikazivawe serija u vidu geometrijskih oblika je dosta rasprostraweniji na~in koji pru`a vi{e mogu}nosti za upore|ivawe. Ti geometrijski oblici se nazivaju dijagramima, a izbor vrste dijagrama zavisi od vrste i ciqa istra`ivawa i podataka. Dijagrami mogu biti:·linijski (imaju jednu dimenziju i slu`e za prikazivawe modalitete jednog obele`ja)·povr{inski ili histogrami (mogu prikazivati vi{e obele`ja deqewem na mawe osen~ene povr{ine)·prostorni ili stereogrami (mogu prikazivati trodimenzionalno podatke)·u vidu ta~aka ili stigmogramiGrafi~ko prikazivawe se mo`e vr{iti u koordinatnom i izvan koordinatnog sistema. Grafi~ki prikazi u pravouglom ili polarnom koordinatnom sistemu slu`e za prikaz i analizu statisti~kih podata! ka raspore|enih po frekvencijama ili u vremenskim serijama i dosta su precizniji od grafi~kih prikaza izvan koordinatnog sistema koji naj~e{}e nalaze primenu na geografskim kartama primenom kartograma. GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U PRAVOUGLOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMUOvi prikazi se vr{e unutar pravog kvadranta pravouglog koordinatnog sisitema, gde se na apscisnoj osi nalaze obele`ja (modaliteti), a na ordinatnoj osi se nalaze u~estalost ponavqawa neke vrednosti u podacima (frekvencije). Neka gruba podela se mo`e izv{iti unutar grafi~kih prikaza u pravouglom koordinatnom sistemu na grafi~ko prikazivawe:·Numeri~kih serija sa prekidnim obele`jem·Numeri~kih serija sa neprekidnim obele`jem·Vremenskih serijaGRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA PREKIDNIM OBELE@JEMPrikazivawe se vr{i pomo}u:1)Stigmograma (ozna~avawem ta~aka za vrednosti obele`ja podataka posmatrane pojave, naj~e{}e sre|enih u tabelama)2)Ordinatama (sli~no stigmogramima, gde su ta~ke stigmograma ordinatama povezane sa apscisnom osom)3)Dotplotom (ta~ke se uzdi`u sa apscisne ose do vrednosti podataka, prikaz u kom nema ordinatne ose, neprakti~an kod velikih vrednosti)PRIMER: za slede}e podatke iz tabele veli~ine porodica u selima na jugu Srbije (na osnovu uzorka od 10 porodica) napraviti grafi~ke prikaze u pravouglom koordinatnom sistemu (pomo}u: 1) stigmograma; 2) ordinata; 3) dotplota)BROJ ^LANOVA PORODICE (H)BROJ PORODICA (F)253242511) 2)3)GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA NEPREKIDNIM OBELE@JEMPrikazivawe se vr{i pomo}u:1)Histograma (pravougaonici ~ija je osnova veli~ina grupnog intervala, a visina frekvencija istog intervala; povr{ina jednog pravougaonika je proporcionalana frekvenciji tog grupnog intervala, a povr{ina svih pravougaonika jednaka je ukupnoj frekvenciji posmatrane populacije)2)Poligona (mnogougaona povr{ina ograni~ena izlomqenom linijom koja povezuje sredine grupnih intervala u vrednosti frekvencije i apscisnom osom; ukupna povr{ina poligona jednaka je ukupnoj povr{ini histograma z a istu posmatranu pojavu tj. jednaka je ukupnoj frekv! enciji posmatrane populacije; ako je u pitawu otvoreni interval, sredine grupnog intervala se ne spajaju sa apscisnom osom, nego vise u vazduhu, a ako je zatvoren interval, onda se krajevi izlomqene linije spajaju sa susednim sredinama intervala na apscisnoj osi)3)Teorijskom krivom (sli~no poligonu, izlomqena linija se unosi kao kontinuirana kriva; pri kori{}ewu teorijske krive polazi se od pretpostavke da su grupni intervali beskrajno mali, a da je wihov broj beskrajno veliki; teorijska kriva ukazuje na oblik rasporeda frekvencija, {to je veoma va`no u statistici)4)Kumulante (koristi kumulirane frekvencije od najni`e navi{e (kumulirawe ispod) ili od najvi{e nani`e (kumulirawe iznad) sukcesivnim sabirawem gde kona~na suma kumulirawa mora biti jednaka ukupnom zbiru frekvencija; u preseku kumulante ispod i iznad dobija se medijana populacije)PRIMER: za slede}u grupu od 16 regruta date su wihove te`ine : 65; 78; 90; 67; 83; 80; 72; 75; 69; 81; 80; 85; 90; 87; 77; 69. srediti i grupisat i podatke i napraviti grafi~ke prikaze u pravouglom koordinatnom sistemu (pomo}u: 1) histograma; 2) poligona; 3) teorijske krive; 4) kumulante ispod i iznad):Prvo se izra~una broj grupa po Strxesovom pravilu: K = 1 + 3,3log 16 = 4,97 ≈ 5 (jer je N=16)Potom se izra~una veli~ina intervala: i = (90 ? 65)/ 5 = 5 (jer je Xmax= 90, Xmin= 65)Po{to je dobijeno da formiramo seriju od 5 grupa veli~ine intervala 5, a za potrebe kumulante formira}emo u tabeli dve nove kolone, za kumulantu iznad i za kumulantu ispod:VISINA REGRUTABROJ REGRUTAKUMULANTA ISPODKUMULANTA IZNAD65 - 70441670.1 - 75261275.1 - 804101080.1 - 85313685.1 - 903163Σ161)2)3)4)GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE VREMENSKIH SERIJAPrikazivawe se vr{i pomo}u:1)Aritmeti~kih linijskih dijagrama (linijski dijagram sa aritmeti~kom skalom na ordinatnoj osi, gde se na apscisnoj osi nalaze oznake za vreme, a na ordinatnoj osi apsolutne vrednosti veli~ine posmatrane pojave u pojedinim momentima ili uzastopnim intervalima; ako ordinatna osa sa dr`i velike vrednosti, a rasponi moraju biti jednaki,! po~etak prekidamo sa dve crte da bi izbacili neposmatrane vrednosti i date dobili ve}u preglednost dijagrama; po{to pokazuje apsolutne vrednosti, ovaj dijagram pokazuje za koliko, a ne koliko puta je ve}a ili mawa posmatrana pojava u momentu)2)Polulogaritamskih linijskih dijagrama (sli~an aritmeti~kom linijskom dijagramu, sem {to umesto apsolutnih vrednosti, na ordinatnoj osi se nalazi logaritamska skala, pa se preko ovog dijagrama mogu pratiti proporcionalne promene posmatrane pojave, ~ak i vi{e vremenskih serija kod kojih postoje apsolutne razlike u nivoima na kojima se kre}u podaci ili ako su kori{}ene razli~ite merne jedinice; ordinatna osa ne mo`e po~eti od nule)PRIMER: grafi~ki predstaviti promenu prodaje posmatrane firme A (tabela 1) po mesecima 2005. godine, a potom uporediti sa promenom prodaje firme B (tabela 2):TABELA 1TABELA 2PERIODPRODAJA (X1)log X1PERIODPRODAJA (X2)log X2Januar1302.11Januar3052.48Februar1682.22Februar3342.52Mart1702.23Mart3702.57April1992.29April3802 .58UKUPNO667UKUPNO1389GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U POLARNOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMUKod vremenskih serija kod kojih je izra`en sezonski karakter promena koristi se polarni dijagram. Zavisno od du`ine vremenskog perioda koji se posmatra, krug dijagrama se podeli na potreban broj jednakih delova (za kvartale ~etiri, za mesece dvanaest...) koji se nazivaju potege. Po potegama unosimo merne jedinice skale, a na ostale unosimo ta~ke koje ozna~avaju vrednosti pojave, spajawem ta~aka dobijamo izlomqenu krivu kojapokazuje razvoj promene. Radi lak{eg rada sa dijagramom, mo`e se ucrtati krug na dijagramu koji bi ozna~avao prose~nu vrednost pojave, pa bi se prema tome moglo videti koji delovi su bili iznad (izvan kruga), a koji ispod proseka (unutar kruga). PRIMER: posmatrati promenu u poslovawu fotografskih radwi po godi{wim dobima:GODI[WE DOBAPOSLOVAWEPROLE]E 2002.40LETO 2002.300JESEN 2002.80ZIMA 2002.180PROLE]E 2003.50LETO 2003.310JESEN 2003.120ZIMA 2003.200GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE VAN KOORDINATNOG SISTE MAKod geografskih serija se za grafi~ko prikazivawe k! oriste kartogrami. Osnovu ~ini geografska karta sa podru~ijima ~ije su granice jasno utvr|ene. Koja vrste su podru~ja zavisi od ciqa istra`ivawa. Podaci o veli~ini pojave se unose u podru~ja {rafurama, ta~kama ili obi~nim dijagramom (simboli raznih vrsta). Ako se ozna~ava sen~ewem ili bojewem, intezitet ozna~avawa treba da bude pribli~an intezitetu posmatrane pojave. Kartogrami se mogu upore|ivati radi posmatrawa razvoja posmatrane promene u vremenskim intervalima koji pak se uzimaju shodno vrsti podataka ili ciqu istra`ivawa (promena nadmorske visine se posmatra na du`e vremenske periode, populacija na otprilike deceniju, a koli~ina padavina na kvartale...). Popularan na~in je prikazivawe slikama (intezitet se ozna~ava razli~itim veli~inama slike ili rali~itim brojem istih slika) pojave koja se posmatra, ali ovaj na~in je najneprecizniji. PRIMER: dat je kartogram prose~ne visinske strukture regiona sa podelom na 0-500m; 500-1500m; preko 1500m: 5)DESKRIPTIVNE unmingledU istra`ivawu nam je ciq da dobijemo jedinstvenu sliku o prikupqenim odacima jer gomila podataka, bez obzira kako sre|ena i grafi~ki i tabelarno predstavqena, ote`ava zakqu~ivawe o posmatranoj pojavi. U tu svrhu ras~lawujemo i upore|ujemo podatke i tar`imo pravilnosti i zakonitosti pojave. ^itave serije podataka nastojimo da zamenimo mawim brojem numeri~kih karakteristika koje bi predstavqale seriju {to je mogu}e boqe. Za koju vrstu tih reprezentativnih karakteristika }emo se opredeliti zavisi prvenstveno od ciqa istra`ivawa, ali i od same prirode podataka koje smo prikupili. ?Pokazateqe rasporeda frekvencija koji pokazuju chief executive officer osnovni skup nazivamo parametrima skupa i svstavamo ih u tri grupe?6):·Mere centralne tendencije rasporeda·Mere disperzije·Mere oblika rasporedaDeskriptivne mere koje se odnose na sve jedinice skupa nazivamo parametri skupa, a koje se odnose uzorak statistike uzorka. unmingled CENTRALNE TENDENCIJEMere centralne tendencije rasporeda nazivamo druga~ ije i sredwim vrednostima. One posmatraju osobine pod! ataka da se grupi{u oko vrednosti koja najboqe predstavqa sve podatke. Takva vrednost nam omogu}ava da upore|ujemo seriju sa drugom serijom (naravno, opet preko vrednosti koja najboqe predstavqa tu drugu seriju), pokazuje lokaciju skupa. Prema na~inu na koji dolazimo do wih, sredwe vrednosti se dele na izra~unate i pozicione. U izra~unate sredwe vrednosti spadaju: aritmeti~ka sredina, geometrijska sredina i harmonijska sredina. U pozicione sredwe vrednosti spadaju: modus i medijana. Svaka sredwa vrednost posebno ima svoje karakteristi~ne osobine (dobre i lo{e) koje se moraju uzeti u obzir pri opredeqivawu u istra`ivawu, ali sve moraju da imaju slede}e osobine: da su dobijene objektivnim matemati~kim putem, da se dobijena sredwa vrednost serije nalazi u intervalu od najmawe do najve}e vrednosti te serije, i da ako su podaci u seriji svi jednaki, onda je i sredwa vrednost ista kao i vrednost obele`ja. ARITMETI^KA SREDINAAritmeti~ka sredina (ili prosek) je naj{ire upotrebqena mera cent ralne tendencije u istra`ivawu, ali i u svakodnevnom `ivotu. Dobija se kada se zbir svih posmatranih podataka podeli sa brojem posmatranih podataka. Podaci mogu biti grupisani i negrupisani, a aritmeti~ke srednie se mogu izra~unavati za ceo skup ili uzorak (zavisno {ta posmatramo) preko slede}ih manifestation:Aritmeti~ka sredina skupa za negrupisane podatkeμ = Σ x / NAritmeti~ka sredina skupa za grupisane podatkeμ = Σ fi xi / NAritmeti~ka sredina uzorka za negrupisane podatke = Σ x / nAritmeti~ka sredina uzorka za grupisane podatke = Σ fi xi / nGde je N broj podataka u skupu, n broj podataka u uzorku, fi frekvencija i-tog podatka. Kao oznaka za aritmeti~ku sredinu skupa koristi se gr~ko slovo μ (koje se ~ita mi), a za aritmeti~ku sredinu uzorka koristi se (koje se ~ita iks bar). Kada imamo grupisane podatke, moramo svaki podatak da pomno`imo sa wegovom frekvencijom, a taj proces se naziva ponderisawe. Kod izra~unavawa aritmeti~ke sredine numeri~ke serije sa neprekidnim obele`jem, uzimamo sr! edinu grupnog intervala koje ponderi{emo pa daqe izra~unavamo po datoj formuli aritmeti~ke sredine za grupisane podatke. Najve}i nedostatak ovakvog postupka je {to se predpostavqa da su vrednosti obele`ja unutar grupnog intervala ravnomerno raspore|ena ({to je u praksi retko slu~aj), {to dovodi do odstupawa od aritmeti~ke sredine dobijene na osnovu negrupisanih podataka. Prednost aritmeti~ke sredine u odnosu na sve druge mere je {to zavisi od svih podataka u skupu (ili uzorku), ali ako me|u podacima postoje ekstremne vrednosti (vrednost u seriji koja jako odudara od ostalih vrednosti u seriji) one }e dati pogre{ne informacije o seriji. Aritmeti~ka sredina ima (pored ve} navedenih osobina koje imaju sve sredwe vrednosti) jo{ tri:·suma odstupawa podataka od proseka uvek je jednaka nuliza grupisane Σ fi (xi ? μ) = 0; za negrupisane Σ (xi ? μ) = 0·suma kvadrata odstupawa podataka od proseka mawa je od sume kvadrate odstupawa podataka od bilo koje vrednosti u seriji ili bilo koje druge sredwe vrednosti (pod uslovom da je ta vrednost razli~ita od proseka)Σ (xi ? μ)2 < Σ (xi ? x0)2 (gde je x0 ta vrednost razli~ita od proseka)·Ako su dva obele`ja ili dve serije (h i u) povezane linearnom funkcijom, onda su i wihove aritmeti~ka sredine povezane istom funkcijomza y=a+bx va`i μy=a+bμx (μy prosek od y; μx prosek od x)GEOMETRIJSKA SREDINAGeometrijska sredina izravnava relativne i proporcionalne promene izme|u vrednosti podataka posmatrane serije. Dobija se kao pozitivna vrednost korena proizvoda svih vrednosti obele`ja ~iji je izlo`iteq broj podataka ili antilogaritmovawem po slede}oj formuli:Geometrijska sredina skupa za negrupisane podatke Geometrijska sredina skupa za negrupisane podatke(antilogaritmovawem) Geometrijska sredina skupa za grupisane podatke Geometrijska sredina skupa za grupisane podatke (antilogaritmovawem)Gde je N broj podataka, x1 * x2 * ... * xn je proizvod vrednosti obele`ja X, fi frekvencija i -tog podatka. Najve}i nedostatak geometrijske sredine! je {to (po{to se izra~unava kao proizvod) nijedna vrednost obele`ja ne sme biti jednaka nuli ili negativna vrednost. geometrijska sredina ima (pored ve} navedenih osobina koje imaju sve sredwe vrednosti) jo{ tri osobine:·Mawa je ili jednaka aritmeti~koj sredini·Proizvod odnosa geometrijske sredine prema mawim vrednostima obele`ja jednak je odnosu ve}ih vrednosti obele`ja prema geometrijskoj sredinixi < G < xi+1Zbog svojih osobina, geometrijska sredina se slabo koristi kao pokazateq rasporeda frekvencija, ali se naj~e{}e koristi za izravnavawe indeksnih brojeva i za izra~unavawe stope rasta na osnovu lan~anih indeksa, preko formule:rg = G ? 100Gde je G geometrijska sredina izra~unata za vrednosti lan~anih indeksa ili:Gde je N broj podataka, Y1 prva vrednost u vremenskoj seriji, a YN posledwa vrednost u vremenskoj seriji. Geometrijska stopa rasta je relativna veli~ina koja se koristi za procenu broja posmatrane pojave izme|u dva popisa ako se rast kre}e pribli`no po geometrijskoj p rogresiji (naj~e{}e je u pitawu broj stanovnika). HARMONIJSKA SREDINAHarmonijska sredina je recipro~na vrednost aritmeti~ke sredine recipro~nih vrednosti obele`ja. Izra~unava se:Harmonijska sredina za negrupisane podatke Harmonijska sredina za grupisane podatkeGde je N broj podataka, a fi frekvencija i-tog podatka. Harmonijska sredina nema {iroku primenu u istra`ivawu, ali se koristi za izra~unavawe indeksnih brojeva i kod recipro~nih pokazateqa obele`ja. Besmisleno je ra~unati harmonijsku sredinu za vrednosti obele`ja nula. MODUSModus je poziciona sredwa vrednost koja se kao pokazateq lokacije javqa na osnovu odre|ivawa pozicije koju zauzima u seriji. Modus (na osnovu zna~ewa moda) je vrednost obele`ja koja je najtipi~nija u posmatranoj seriji jer ima najve}u u~estalost. Zavisno od toga koliko vrednosti obele`ja ima najve}u u~estalost, serije mogu biti unimodalne (samo jedna vrednost obele`ja sa najve}om u~estalo{}u), bimodalne (dve vrednosti obele`ja) i multimodalne (vi{e vrednost i obele`ja imaju najve}u u~estalost). Serije sa vredn! ostima obele`ja koja imaju jednaku u~estalost u seriji ka`emo da nema modus. Odre|ivawe za serije negrupisanih podataka je po principu uzimawa vrednosti obele`ja sa najve}om u~estalo{}u za modus. Za serije grupisanih podataka modus se tra`i preko grupnog intervala sa najve}om u~estalo{}u koji se naziva modalnim intervalom po formuli:ModusMo= L1 + (f2 ? f3) / [(f2 ? f1) + (f2 ? f3)]iGde je L1 dowa granica modalnog intervala, f1 u~estalost predmodalnog intervala, f2 u~estalost modalnog intervala, f3 u~estalost poslemodalnog intervala, a i je du`ina grupnog intervala. Modus se grafi~ki mo`e najlak{e odrediti preko histograma u preseku linije po~etne vrednosti modalnog intervala i po~etne vrednosti poslemodalnog intervala sa linijom krajwe vrednosti modalnog intervala i krajwe vrednosti predmodalnog intervala. Dobijena ta~ka na apscisi pokazuje modus serije. Najve}i nedostaci modusa su to {to u nekim serijama je nemogu}e odrediti modus i {to je veoma va`no kako grupi{emo podatke, jer ista serija grupisana na dva razli~ita na~ina pokazuje razli~ite moduse, a najve}e prednosti su {to na modus ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti i {to se mo`e odre|ivati na svim skalama, pa ~ak i nominalnoj. Uzavisno od ciqa istra`ivawa, modus se mo`e pokazati kao najboqa mogu}a sredwa vrednost. MEDIJANAMedijana je druga poziciona sredwa vrednost. Medijana je ona vrednost obele`ja koja se nalazi ta~no u sredini sre|ene serije po veli~ini, tj. deli seriju na polovinu koja ima ve}u vrednost od medijane i polovinu koja ima mawu vrednost od medijane. Kod serija sa~iwenih od neparnog broja podataka, medijana je sredi{wa vrednost (npr. u seriji od 7 podataka, 4.
podatak je mesto me! dijane, pa je vrednost 4. podatka medijana...), ali kod serija sa~iwenih od parnog broja podataka, medijana je aritmeti~ka sredina dve sredi{we vrednosti (npr. u seriji od 8 podataka, aritmeti~ka sredina vrednosti 4. i 5. podatka je medijana...). Kada imamo sre|ene serije sa velikim brojem podataka, mo`emo ra~unskim putem da na|emo gde je medijana kumulirawem kolone od najni`e frekvencije navi{e (kumulirawe ispod) tako {to tra`imo gde se obuhvata polovina ukupne frekvencije, tj. koje obele`je obuhvata polovinu ukupne frekvencije. Za serije grupisanih podataka, medijana se odre|uje po formuli:MedijanaMe = L1 + [(N/2 - Σf1) / fMe] iGde je L1 dowa granica medijalnog intervala, N broj ~lanova serije, Σf1 zbir frekvencija predmedijalnog intervala, fMe frekvencija medijalnog intervala, a i je du`ina grupnog intervala. Medijana se grafi~ki najlak{e odrediti preko kumulante, u preseku kumulante iznad i kumulante ispod dobija se ta~ka koja na apscisi pokazuje medijanu. Najve}i nedo statak medijane je {to se ne mo`e odrediti za otvorene intervale koji sadr`e vi{e od polovine podataka, a najve}a prednost je {to na medijanu ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. MERE DISPERZIJEMere disperzije nazivamo druga~ije i merama raspr{enosti. Wima merimo varijacije posmatranih serija, jer dve serije mogu imati iste sredwe vrednosti, ali razli~itu disperziju serije. Prema tome kako iskazuju tu disperziju, delimo ih na apsolutne mere disperzije i relativne mere disperzije. Apsolutne mere disperzije pokazuju apsolutne iznose u mernim jedinicama posmatranih obele`ja. One se dele na izra~unate i pozicione. Pozicione apsolutne mere disperziju su interval varijacije i interkvartilna razlika, a izra~unate apsolutne mere disperzije su sredwe apsolutno odstupawe, varijansa i standardna devijacija. Relativne mere disperzije su koeficijent varijacije, koeficijent interkvartilne varijacije i standardizovano odstupawe. INTERVAL VARIJACIJEInterval varijacije pokazuje raspon podataka od najmaweg do najve}eg u seriji. Dobija se kao razlika najmawe i! najve}e vrednosti obele`ja u seriji:Interval varijacijei = xmax - xminInterval varijacije daje grubu sliku o disperziji serije. Najve}i nedostaci su {to se mo`e izra~unavati samo za kona~ne razmake i {to na wu uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. INTERKVARTILNA RAZLIKAInterkvartilna razlika se izra~unava kao razlika tre}eg i prvog kvartila serije. Kvartili su serija podeqena na ~etiri jednaka dela. Medijana serije se naziva drugim kvartilom. Analogno tome, prvi kvartil deli seriju sre|enu po veli~ini na ~etvrtinu koja ima mawu vrednost od prvog kvartila i tri ~etvrtine koje imaju ve}u vrednost od prvog kvertila; tre}i kvartil deli seriju sre|enu po veli~ini na ~etvrtinu koja ima ve}u vrednost od tre}eg kvartila i tri ~etvrtine koje imaju mawu vrednost od tre}eg kvartila. Preko formula:Prvi kvartilQ1 = L1 + [(N/4 - Σf1) / fQ1] iDrugi kvartil(medijana)Me = L1 + [(N/2 - Σf1) / fQ2] iTre}i kvartilQ3 = L1 + [(3N/4 - Σf1) / fQ3] iGde je L1 dowa granica kvartilnog intervala, N broj ~lanova serije, Σf1 zbir frekvencija predkvartilnog intervala, fQ frekvencija kvartilnog intervala, a i je du`ina grupnog intervala. Preko svega toga, interkvartilna razlika se dobija:Interkvartilna razlikaiq = Q3 ? Q1Po{to kvartili imaju iste osobine kao i medijana, ni na interkvartilnu razliku ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. SREDWE APSOLUTNO ODSTUPAWESredwe apsolutno odstupawe je izra~unata apsolutna mera disperzije koja pokazuje disperziju prema odstupawu od aritmeti~ke sredine, pa je zbog toga (kao i sve izra~unate apsolutne mere disperzije) boqa od pozicionih apsolutnih mera disperzije. Izra~unava se po formuli:Sredwe apsolunto odstupawe za negrupisane podatke = 1/ N Σ | xi - μ|Sredwe apsolunto odstupawe za grupisane podatke = 1/ N Σfi | xi - μ|Gde je N broj ~lanova serije, fi frekvencija i-tog podatka, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Pri izra~unavawu odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine koristi se apsolutna vrednost, jer je (kao {to je ve} pomenuto kod osobina aritmeti~ke sredine) zbir odstupawa jedn! ak nuli, a da bi se izbeglo to, za sredwe apsolutno odstupawe se koristi zbir apsolutnih vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine. VARIJANSAVarijansa pokazuje disperziju prema odstupawu od aritmeti~ke sredine, ali (za razliku od sredweg apsolutnog odstupawa gde se koristi zbir apsolutnih vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine) kod varijanse se koristi zbir kvadrata vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine. Dobija se po formuli:Varijansa skupa za negrupisane podatkeσ2 =1/ N Σ (xi ? μ)2Varijansa skupa za grupisane podatkeσ2 =1/ N Σfi (xi ? μ)2]Varijansa uzorka za negrupisane podatkes2 =1/ (n-1) Σ (xi ? )2Varijansa uzorka za grupisane podatkes2 =1/ (n-1) Σfi (xi ? )2Gde je N broj podataka u skupu, n broj podataka u uzorku, fi frekvencija i-tog podatka, μ aritmeti~ka sredina skupa, a aritmeti~ka sredinu. Kao oznaka za varijansu skupa koristi se gr~ko slovo σ2 (koje se ~ita sigma na kvadrat), a kao o znaka za varijansu uzorka koristi se slovo s2. Razlog {to kod uzorka delimo sa n-1, a ne sa n je {to je n-ti kvadrat odstupawa potpuno odre|en posle n-1 slu~ajnih odstupawa, pa ka`emo da je izgubio svoju slobodu. n-1 je broj stepeni slobode sa kojim moramo da delimo da bi dobili nepristrasnu ocenu. Najve}i nedostatak varijanse je {to se izra`ava u mernim jedinicama na kvadrat. Iz ovog proizilazi da nikad ne mo`e imati negativnu vrednost. STANDARDNA DEVIJACIJAStandarna devijacija je pozitivan koren varijanse i time je otklowen najve}i nedostatak varijanse (merne jedinice na kvadrat). Oznaka za standardnu devijaciju sjupa je σ, a za standardnu devijaciju uzorka je s. Iako je standardna devijacija naj~e{}e kori{}ena apsolutna mera disperzije, ona nam sama ne mo`e re}i da li je dobijena vrednost disperzije velika ili ne (jer standardna devijacija zavisi od veli~ine vrednosti obel`ja serije), ve} se u tu svrhu koriste relativne mere disperzije. KOEFICIJENT VARIJACIJEKoeficijent vari jacije je odnos standardne devijacije i aritmeti~ke s! redine. Dobija se po formuli:Koeficijent varijacijeV = σ / μGde je σ standardna devijacija, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Koeficijent varijacije slu`i za upore|ivawe disperzija dve ili vi}e serija, a wegova najve}a prednost (budu}i da je re~ o relativnoj veli~ini, tj. veli~ini izra`enoj u procentima) je {to se mogu upore|ivati serije ~ije merne jedinice nisu iste. KOEFICIJENT INTERKVARTILNE VARIJACIJEKoeficijent interkvartilne varijacije je druga mera kojom se porede serije:Koeficijent interkvartilne varijacijeVQ = (Q3 ? Q1) / (Q3 + Q1)STANDARDIZOVANO ODSTUPAWEStandardizovano odstupawe se druga~ije naziva i normalizovano odstupawe. Slu`i da se oceni varijacija sa stanovi{ta zasebnih podataka. Dobija se po formuli:Standardizovano odstupaweZ = (X - μ) / σGde je σ standardna devijacija, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Za sve relativne mere va`i pravilo da se kre}u u intervalu od 0 do 1, ili od 0% do 100%. [to je dobijena vrednost bli`a 0, disperzija je mala, {to je daqa od 0 sve je ve}a. Ako su svi podaci u seriji jednaki, dobijena vrednost }e iznositi 0, tj. nema disperzije u seriji. MERE OBLIKA RASPOREDAMere oblika rasporeda obuhvataju mere asimetrije rasporeda i mere spqo{tenosti rasporeda. Obe mere su relativne. MERE ASIMETRIJE RASPOREDAMere asimetrije rasporeda su relativne mere kojima se ispituje simetri~nost oblika rasporeda. Simetri~an raspored ima frekvencije vrednosti obele`ja ravnomerno raspore|ene od aritmeti~ke sredine sa obe strane (kod simetri~nih rasporeda aritmeti~ka sredina, modus i medijana su jednake). Kod asimetri~nih rasporeda frekvencije vrednosti obele`ja grupi{u se iznad ili ispod aritmeti~ke sredine. Ka`emo da je raspored asimetri~an u desno kada je aritmeti~ka sredina ve}a od modusa, ili druga~ije raspored je pozitivno asimetri~an. Ka`emo da je raspored asimetri~an u levo kada je aritmeti~ka sredina mawa od modusa, ili druga~ije raspored je negativno asimetri~an. Za odre|ivawe mera oblika rasporeda koriste se odstupawa vrednosti obele`ja od aritmeti~ke sredine ! na odre|eni stepen ili centalni momenti rasporeda. locution za dobijawe centralnih momenata rasporeda:Centralni momenti rasporeda Mn =1/ N Σ (xi ? μ)nGde je N broj podataka u skupu, n broj momenta koji posmatramo, μ aritmeti~ka sredina skupa. Za nulti momenat, vrednost je uvek jedan. Za prvi momenat, vrednost je uvek nula. Za drugi momenat, vrednost je uvek jednaka vrednosti varijanse skupa. Mera asimetrije rasporeda se dobija po formuli:Mera asimetrije rasporeda α3 = M3 / σ3Gde je M3 tre}i centralni momenat rasporeda, σ3 je standardna devijacija na tre}i stepen. Kao oznaka za meru asimetrije rasporeda koristi se gr~ko slovo α3 (koje se ~ita alfa tri). Tre}i stepeni se poni{tavaju i dobijamo relativnu meru. Kada se α3 kre}e u intervalu od ?- 0.5 do 0.5, ka`emo da je raspored umereno asimetri~an, za sve van tog intervala ka`emo da je znatno asimetri~an. Kada je α3 jednako nuli, ka`emo da je raspored simetri~an. MERE SPQO[TENOSTI RASPOR EDAMere spqo{tenosti rasporeda su relativne mere kojima se ispituje spqo{tenost oblika rasporeda u zavisnosti od odnosa frekvencije sredwih vrednosti i frekvencija ostalih vrednosti obele`ja. Mera spqo{tenosti rasporeda se dobija po formuli:Mera spqo{tenosti rasporeda α4 = M4 / σ4Gde je M4 ~etvrti centralni momenat rasporeda, σ4 je standardna devijacija na ~etvrti stepen. Kao oznaka za meru asimetrije rasporeda koristi se gr~ko slovo α4 (koje se ~ita alfa ~etiri). ^etvrti stepeni se poni{tavaju i dobijamo relativnu meru. Raspored ima normalnu spqo{tenost ako je α4 jednako tri, ako je α4 mawe od tri, ka`emo da je raspored vi{e spqo{ten od normalnog rasporeda, a ako je α4 ve}e od tri, ka`emo da je raspored vi{e izdu`en od normalnog rasporeda. PRIMER ZA PRIMENU MERA DESKRIPTIVNE ANALIZEDat nam je primer pregleda invalidskih penzija po mesecima 2002. godine za korisnika NN:mesecIznos u din. Januar9000Februar14511Mart14593April14663Maj14716Jun14836Ju l14852Avgust14899Septembar14940Oktobar14982Novembar15! 011Decembar15010Minitab 14.13 nam je dao slede}i izlaz:TotalVariable reckoning misbegot StDev Variance CoefVar Minimum Q1 Median Q3C1 12 14334 1688 2849648 11,78 9000 14611 14844 14972Variable maximal set out IQRC1 15011 6011 361Obja{wewe dobijenih podataka : aritmeti~ka sredina posmatrane pojave iznosi 14334 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Mean), varijansa je 2849648 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Variance), standardna devijacija je 1688 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa StDev), koeficijent varijacije je 11.78% (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa CoefVar), medijana je 14844 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Median), prvi kvartil je 14611 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Q1), tre}i kvartil je 14972 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Q3), interkvartilna razlika je 361 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa IQR), interval varijacije je 6011 (u Minitabu se najbli`e obele`ava sa Range). U ovom primeru ne mo`e se izra~unati modus jer se svaka vrednost pojavquje samo jedanput. Po{to se u primeru nalazi ekstremna vrednost (za januar mesec iznos je 9000, vrednost koja dosta odstupa od ostalih vrednosti), aritmeti~ka sredina nije najboqi pokazateq sredwe vrednosti, ve} je medijana (na koju ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti). Ekstremna vrednost povla~i raspored u levo, a po{to nam je medijana najboqa mera centralne tendencije, interkvartilna razlika nam je najboqa mera disperzije. ZAKQU^AKKada se odlu~imo da posmatramo neku pojavu, moramo pa`qivo da se odlu~imo i kako }emo skupqati i sre|ivati podatke posmatrane pojave. Pored osobina pojave koju posmatramo, i materijalna strana istra`ivawa uti~e na odabir metoda (svaka studija naj~e{}e ima veoma ograni~en buxet). Statisti~ki popis je mnogo temeqniji, ali i izda{niji od statisti~kog uzorka. Statisti~ki uzorak prikupqen na ispravan na~in daje efikasnije podatke od statisti~kog popisa. Kada prikupimo i sredimo podatke (prema potrebama istra`ivawa zavisi da li }emo grupisati i na koliko grupa), biramo i koje mere deskriptivne analize }emo koristiti. Ako me|u posmatranim pojava ! nema ekstremnih vrednosti, onda nam je aritmeti~ka sredina najboqa sredwa vrednost koja }e pokazati karakteristike posmatrane pojave, kada pak ima ekstremnih vrednosti, odlu~i}emo se za medijanu. Zavisno od koje sredwe vrednosti smo se odlu~ili da nam najvi{e odgovara, uze}emo mere disperzije. Medijani najvi{e odgovara interkvartilna razlika, aritmeti~koj sredini najvi{e odgovara standardna devijacija. SADR@AJ:UVOD3MERNE SKALE3NOMINALNA SKALA3ORDINALNA SKALA3INTERVALNA SKALA4SKALA ODNOSA4METODI PRIKUPQAWA PODATAKA4STATISTI^KI POPIS4STATISTI^KI IZVE[TAJ4STATISTI^KI UZORAK4SRE\IVAWE I OBRADA PODATAKA5PRIKAZIVAWE PODATAKA5SERIJE STRUKTURE5VREMENSKE SERIJE6TABELARNO PRIKAZIVAWE7GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U PRAVOUGLOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMU8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA PREKIDNIM OBELE@JEM8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA NEPREKIDNIM OBELE@JEM9GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE VREMENSKIH SERIJA11GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U POLARNOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMU12GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVA WE VAN KOORDINATNOG SISTEMA12DESKRIPTIVNE MERE13MERE CENTRALNE TENDENCIJE14ARITMETI^KA SREDINA14GEOMETRIJSKA SREDINA15HARMONIJSKA SREDINA15MODUS16MEDIJANA16MERE DISPERZIJE17INTERVAL VARIJACIJE17INTERKVARTILNA RAZLIKA17SREDWE APSOLUTNO ODSTUPAWE17VARIJANSA18STANDARDNA DEVIJACIJA18KOEFICIJENT VARIJACIJE18KOEFICIJENT INTERKVARTILNE VARIJACIJE18STANDARDIZOVANO ODSTUPAWE19MERE OBLIKA RASPOREDA19MERE ASIMETRIJE RASPOREDA19MERE SPQO[TENOSTI RASPOREDA19PRIMER ZA PRIMENU MERA DESKRIPTIVNE ANALIZE20OBJA[WEWE DOBIJENIH PODATAKA21ZAKQU^AK21ENDNOTE22LITERATURA23Endnote:1)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 11)2)isto (str.15)3)Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, 1999. (32.str)4)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 22)5) Hearts of Iron, Paradox, 2005. (1.str)6)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METO DI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku ! delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 38)LITERATURA KORI[]ENA PRI IZRADI PRISTUPNOG RADA:OSNOVNA LITERATURA:@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. DODATNA LITRATURA:HELP file footlocker IZ MINITABA 14.13STRANICE SA INTERNETAPRI IZRADI PRISTUPNOG RADA KORI[]EN JE STATISTI^KI PAKET MINITAB 14.13SVI PRIMERI (SEM AKO NIJE NAVEDENO DRUGA^IJE) SU POTPUNO PROIZVOQNI I DELO SU AUTORA OVOG RADA. SVAKO POKLAPAWE SA NE^IJIM TU\IM PRIMERIMA JE POTPUNO NENAMERNO If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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podatak je mesto me! dijane, pa je vrednost 4. podatka medijana...), ali kod serija sa~iwenih od parnog broja podataka, medijana je aritmeti~ka sredina dve sredi{we vrednosti (npr. u seriji od 8 podataka, aritmeti~ka sredina vrednosti 4. i 5. podatka je medijana...). Kada imamo sre|ene serije sa velikim brojem podataka, mo`emo ra~unskim putem da na|emo gde je medijana kumulirawem kolone od najni`e frekvencije navi{e (kumulirawe ispod) tako {to tra`imo gde se obuhvata polovina ukupne frekvencije, tj. koje obele`je obuhvata polovinu ukupne frekvencije. Za serije grupisanih podataka, medijana se odre|uje po formuli:MedijanaMe = L1 + [(N/2 - Σf1) / fMe] iGde je L1 dowa granica medijalnog intervala, N broj ~lanova serije, Σf1 zbir frekvencija predmedijalnog intervala, fMe frekvencija medijalnog intervala, a i je du`ina grupnog intervala. Medijana se grafi~ki najlak{e odrediti preko kumulante, u preseku kumulante iznad i kumulante ispod dobija se ta~ka koja na apscisi pokazuje medijanu. Najve}i nedo statak medijane je {to se ne mo`e odrediti za otvorene intervale koji sadr`e vi{e od polovine podataka, a najve}a prednost je {to na medijanu ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. MERE DISPERZIJEMere disperzije nazivamo druga~ije i merama raspr{enosti. Wima merimo varijacije posmatranih serija, jer dve serije mogu imati iste sredwe vrednosti, ali razli~itu disperziju serije. Prema tome kako iskazuju tu disperziju, delimo ih na apsolutne mere disperzije i relativne mere disperzije. Apsolutne mere disperzije pokazuju apsolutne iznose u mernim jedinicama posmatranih obele`ja. One se dele na izra~unate i pozicione. Pozicione apsolutne mere disperziju su interval varijacije i interkvartilna razlika, a izra~unate apsolutne mere disperzije su sredwe apsolutno odstupawe, varijansa i standardna devijacija. Relativne mere disperzije su koeficijent varijacije, koeficijent interkvartilne varijacije i standardizovano odstupawe. INTERVAL VARIJACIJEInterval varijacije pokazuje raspon podataka od najmaweg do najve}eg u seriji. Dobija se kao razlika najmawe i! najve}e vrednosti obele`ja u seriji:Interval varijacijei = xmax - xminInterval varijacije daje grubu sliku o disperziji serije. Najve}i nedostaci su {to se mo`e izra~unavati samo za kona~ne razmake i {to na wu uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. INTERKVARTILNA RAZLIKAInterkvartilna razlika se izra~unava kao razlika tre}eg i prvog kvartila serije. Kvartili su serija podeqena na ~etiri jednaka dela. Medijana serije se naziva drugim kvartilom. Analogno tome, prvi kvartil deli seriju sre|enu po veli~ini na ~etvrtinu koja ima mawu vrednost od prvog kvartila i tri ~etvrtine koje imaju ve}u vrednost od prvog kvertila; tre}i kvartil deli seriju sre|enu po veli~ini na ~etvrtinu koja ima ve}u vrednost od tre}eg kvartila i tri ~etvrtine koje imaju mawu vrednost od tre}eg kvartila. Preko formula:Prvi kvartilQ1 = L1 + [(N/4 - Σf1) / fQ1] iDrugi kvartil(medijana)Me = L1 + [(N/2 - Σf1) / fQ2] iTre}i kvartilQ3 = L1 + [(3N/4 - Σf1) / fQ3] iGde je L1 dowa granica kvartilnog intervala, N broj ~lanova serije, Σf1 zbir frekvencija predkvartilnog intervala, fQ frekvencija kvartilnog intervala, a i je du`ina grupnog intervala. Preko svega toga, interkvartilna razlika se dobija:Interkvartilna razlikaiq = Q3 ? Q1Po{to kvartili imaju iste osobine kao i medijana, ni na interkvartilnu razliku ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti. SREDWE APSOLUTNO ODSTUPAWESredwe apsolutno odstupawe je izra~unata apsolutna mera disperzije koja pokazuje disperziju prema odstupawu od aritmeti~ke sredine, pa je zbog toga (kao i sve izra~unate apsolutne mere disperzije) boqa od pozicionih apsolutnih mera disperzije. Izra~unava se po formuli:Sredwe apsolunto odstupawe za negrupisane podatke = 1/ N Σ | xi - μ|Sredwe apsolunto odstupawe za grupisane podatke = 1/ N Σfi | xi - μ|Gde je N broj ~lanova serije, fi frekvencija i-tog podatka, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Pri izra~unavawu odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine koristi se apsolutna vrednost, jer je (kao {to je ve} pomenuto kod osobina aritmeti~ke sredine) zbir odstupawa jedn! ak nuli, a da bi se izbeglo to, za sredwe apsolutno odstupawe se koristi zbir apsolutnih vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine. VARIJANSAVarijansa pokazuje disperziju prema odstupawu od aritmeti~ke sredine, ali (za razliku od sredweg apsolutnog odstupawa gde se koristi zbir apsolutnih vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine) kod varijanse se koristi zbir kvadrata vrednosti odstupawa podataka od aritmeti~ke sredine. Dobija se po formuli:Varijansa skupa za negrupisane podatkeσ2 =1/ N Σ (xi ? μ)2Varijansa skupa za grupisane podatkeσ2 =1/ N Σfi (xi ? μ)2]Varijansa uzorka za negrupisane podatkes2 =1/ (n-1) Σ (xi ? )2Varijansa uzorka za grupisane podatkes2 =1/ (n-1) Σfi (xi ? )2Gde je N broj podataka u skupu, n broj podataka u uzorku, fi frekvencija i-tog podatka, μ aritmeti~ka sredina skupa, a aritmeti~ka sredinu. Kao oznaka za varijansu skupa koristi se gr~ko slovo σ2 (koje se ~ita sigma na kvadrat), a kao o znaka za varijansu uzorka koristi se slovo s2. Razlog {to kod uzorka delimo sa n-1, a ne sa n je {to je n-ti kvadrat odstupawa potpuno odre|en posle n-1 slu~ajnih odstupawa, pa ka`emo da je izgubio svoju slobodu. n-1 je broj stepeni slobode sa kojim moramo da delimo da bi dobili nepristrasnu ocenu. Najve}i nedostatak varijanse je {to se izra`ava u mernim jedinicama na kvadrat. Iz ovog proizilazi da nikad ne mo`e imati negativnu vrednost. STANDARDNA DEVIJACIJAStandarna devijacija je pozitivan koren varijanse i time je otklowen najve}i nedostatak varijanse (merne jedinice na kvadrat). Oznaka za standardnu devijaciju sjupa je σ, a za standardnu devijaciju uzorka je s. Iako je standardna devijacija naj~e{}e kori{}ena apsolutna mera disperzije, ona nam sama ne mo`e re}i da li je dobijena vrednost disperzije velika ili ne (jer standardna devijacija zavisi od veli~ine vrednosti obel`ja serije), ve} se u tu svrhu koriste relativne mere disperzije. KOEFICIJENT VARIJACIJEKoeficijent vari jacije je odnos standardne devijacije i aritmeti~ke s! redine. Dobija se po formuli:Koeficijent varijacijeV = σ / μGde je σ standardna devijacija, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Koeficijent varijacije slu`i za upore|ivawe disperzija dve ili vi}e serija, a wegova najve}a prednost (budu}i da je re~ o relativnoj veli~ini, tj. veli~ini izra`enoj u procentima) je {to se mogu upore|ivati serije ~ije merne jedinice nisu iste. KOEFICIJENT INTERKVARTILNE VARIJACIJEKoeficijent interkvartilne varijacije je druga mera kojom se porede serije:Koeficijent interkvartilne varijacijeVQ = (Q3 ? Q1) / (Q3 + Q1)STANDARDIZOVANO ODSTUPAWEStandardizovano odstupawe se druga~ije naziva i normalizovano odstupawe. Slu`i da se oceni varijacija sa stanovi{ta zasebnih podataka. Dobija se po formuli:Standardizovano odstupaweZ = (X - μ) / σGde je σ standardna devijacija, a μ aritmeti~ka sredina. Za sve relativne mere va`i pravilo da se kre}u u intervalu od 0 do 1, ili od 0% do 100%. [to je dobijena vrednost bli`a 0, disperzija je mala, {to je daqa od 0 sve je ve}a. Ako su svi podaci u seriji jednaki, dobijena vrednost }e iznositi 0, tj. nema disperzije u seriji. MERE OBLIKA RASPOREDAMere oblika rasporeda obuhvataju mere asimetrije rasporeda i mere spqo{tenosti rasporeda. Obe mere su relativne. MERE ASIMETRIJE RASPOREDAMere asimetrije rasporeda su relativne mere kojima se ispituje simetri~nost oblika rasporeda. Simetri~an raspored ima frekvencije vrednosti obele`ja ravnomerno raspore|ene od aritmeti~ke sredine sa obe strane (kod simetri~nih rasporeda aritmeti~ka sredina, modus i medijana su jednake). Kod asimetri~nih rasporeda frekvencije vrednosti obele`ja grupi{u se iznad ili ispod aritmeti~ke sredine. Ka`emo da je raspored asimetri~an u desno kada je aritmeti~ka sredina ve}a od modusa, ili druga~ije raspored je pozitivno asimetri~an. Ka`emo da je raspored asimetri~an u levo kada je aritmeti~ka sredina mawa od modusa, ili druga~ije raspored je negativno asimetri~an. Za odre|ivawe mera oblika rasporeda koriste se odstupawa vrednosti obele`ja od aritmeti~ke sredine ! na odre|eni stepen ili centalni momenti rasporeda. locution za dobijawe centralnih momenata rasporeda:Centralni momenti rasporeda Mn =1/ N Σ (xi ? μ)nGde je N broj podataka u skupu, n broj momenta koji posmatramo, μ aritmeti~ka sredina skupa. Za nulti momenat, vrednost je uvek jedan. Za prvi momenat, vrednost je uvek nula. Za drugi momenat, vrednost je uvek jednaka vrednosti varijanse skupa. Mera asimetrije rasporeda se dobija po formuli:Mera asimetrije rasporeda α3 = M3 / σ3Gde je M3 tre}i centralni momenat rasporeda, σ3 je standardna devijacija na tre}i stepen. Kao oznaka za meru asimetrije rasporeda koristi se gr~ko slovo α3 (koje se ~ita alfa tri). Tre}i stepeni se poni{tavaju i dobijamo relativnu meru. Kada se α3 kre}e u intervalu od ?- 0.5 do 0.5, ka`emo da je raspored umereno asimetri~an, za sve van tog intervala ka`emo da je znatno asimetri~an. Kada je α3 jednako nuli, ka`emo da je raspored simetri~an. MERE SPQO[TENOSTI RASPOR EDAMere spqo{tenosti rasporeda su relativne mere kojima se ispituje spqo{tenost oblika rasporeda u zavisnosti od odnosa frekvencije sredwih vrednosti i frekvencija ostalih vrednosti obele`ja. Mera spqo{tenosti rasporeda se dobija po formuli:Mera spqo{tenosti rasporeda α4 = M4 / σ4Gde je M4 ~etvrti centralni momenat rasporeda, σ4 je standardna devijacija na ~etvrti stepen. Kao oznaka za meru asimetrije rasporeda koristi se gr~ko slovo α4 (koje se ~ita alfa ~etiri). ^etvrti stepeni se poni{tavaju i dobijamo relativnu meru. Raspored ima normalnu spqo{tenost ako je α4 jednako tri, ako je α4 mawe od tri, ka`emo da je raspored vi{e spqo{ten od normalnog rasporeda, a ako je α4 ve}e od tri, ka`emo da je raspored vi{e izdu`en od normalnog rasporeda. PRIMER ZA PRIMENU MERA DESKRIPTIVNE ANALIZEDat nam je primer pregleda invalidskih penzija po mesecima 2002. godine za korisnika NN:mesecIznos u din. Januar9000Februar14511Mart14593April14663Maj14716Jun14836Ju l14852Avgust14899Septembar14940Oktobar14982Novembar15! 011Decembar15010Minitab 14.13 nam je dao slede}i izlaz:TotalVariable reckoning misbegot StDev Variance CoefVar Minimum Q1 Median Q3C1 12 14334 1688 2849648 11,78 9000 14611 14844 14972Variable maximal set out IQRC1 15011 6011 361Obja{wewe dobijenih podataka : aritmeti~ka sredina posmatrane pojave iznosi 14334 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Mean), varijansa je 2849648 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Variance), standardna devijacija je 1688 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa StDev), koeficijent varijacije je 11.78% (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa CoefVar), medijana je 14844 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Median), prvi kvartil je 14611 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Q1), tre}i kvartil je 14972 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa Q3), interkvartilna razlika je 361 (u Minitabu ozna~ava se sa IQR), interval varijacije je 6011 (u Minitabu se najbli`e obele`ava sa Range). U ovom primeru ne mo`e se izra~unati modus jer se svaka vrednost pojavquje samo jedanput. Po{to se u primeru nalazi ekstremna vrednost (za januar mesec iznos je 9000, vrednost koja dosta odstupa od ostalih vrednosti), aritmeti~ka sredina nije najboqi pokazateq sredwe vrednosti, ve} je medijana (na koju ne uti~u ekstremne vrednosti). Ekstremna vrednost povla~i raspored u levo, a po{to nam je medijana najboqa mera centralne tendencije, interkvartilna razlika nam je najboqa mera disperzije. ZAKQU^AKKada se odlu~imo da posmatramo neku pojavu, moramo pa`qivo da se odlu~imo i kako }emo skupqati i sre|ivati podatke posmatrane pojave. Pored osobina pojave koju posmatramo, i materijalna strana istra`ivawa uti~e na odabir metoda (svaka studija naj~e{}e ima veoma ograni~en buxet). Statisti~ki popis je mnogo temeqniji, ali i izda{niji od statisti~kog uzorka. Statisti~ki uzorak prikupqen na ispravan na~in daje efikasnije podatke od statisti~kog popisa. Kada prikupimo i sredimo podatke (prema potrebama istra`ivawa zavisi da li }emo grupisati i na koliko grupa), biramo i koje mere deskriptivne analize }emo koristiti. Ako me|u posmatranim pojava ! nema ekstremnih vrednosti, onda nam je aritmeti~ka sredina najboqa sredwa vrednost koja }e pokazati karakteristike posmatrane pojave, kada pak ima ekstremnih vrednosti, odlu~i}emo se za medijanu. Zavisno od koje sredwe vrednosti smo se odlu~ili da nam najvi{e odgovara, uze}emo mere disperzije. Medijani najvi{e odgovara interkvartilna razlika, aritmeti~koj sredini najvi{e odgovara standardna devijacija. SADR@AJ:UVOD3MERNE SKALE3NOMINALNA SKALA3ORDINALNA SKALA3INTERVALNA SKALA4SKALA ODNOSA4METODI PRIKUPQAWA PODATAKA4STATISTI^KI POPIS4STATISTI^KI IZVE[TAJ4STATISTI^KI UZORAK4SRE\IVAWE I OBRADA PODATAKA5PRIKAZIVAWE PODATAKA5SERIJE STRUKTURE5VREMENSKE SERIJE6TABELARNO PRIKAZIVAWE7GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U PRAVOUGLOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMU8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA PREKIDNIM OBELE@JEM8GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE NUMERI^KIH SERIJA SA NEPREKIDNIM OBELE@JEM9GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE VREMENSKIH SERIJA11GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVAWE U POLARNOM KOORDINATNOM SISTEMU12GRAFI^KO PRIKAZIVA WE VAN KOORDINATNOG SISTEMA12DESKRIPTIVNE MERE13MERE CENTRALNE TENDENCIJE14ARITMETI^KA SREDINA14GEOMETRIJSKA SREDINA15HARMONIJSKA SREDINA15MODUS16MEDIJANA16MERE DISPERZIJE17INTERVAL VARIJACIJE17INTERKVARTILNA RAZLIKA17SREDWE APSOLUTNO ODSTUPAWE17VARIJANSA18STANDARDNA DEVIJACIJA18KOEFICIJENT VARIJACIJE18KOEFICIJENT INTERKVARTILNE VARIJACIJE18STANDARDIZOVANO ODSTUPAWE19MERE OBLIKA RASPOREDA19MERE ASIMETRIJE RASPOREDA19MERE SPQO[TENOSTI RASPOREDA19PRIMER ZA PRIMENU MERA DESKRIPTIVNE ANALIZE20OBJA[WEWE DOBIJENIH PODATAKA21ZAKQU^AK21ENDNOTE22LITERATURA23Endnote:1)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 11)2)isto (str.15)3)Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, 1999. (32.str)4)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 22)5) Hearts of Iron, Paradox, 2005. (1.str)6)@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METO DI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku ! delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. (str. 38)LITERATURA KORI[]ENA PRI IZRADI PRISTUPNOG RADA:OSNOVNA LITERATURA:@i`i} M, Lovri} M, Pavli~i} D, METODI STATISTI^KE ANALIZE, Beograd: centar za izdava~ku delatnost Ekonomskog fakulteta, 2005. DODATNA LITRATURA:HELP file footlocker IZ MINITABA 14.13STRANICE SA INTERNETAPRI IZRADI PRISTUPNOG RADA KORI[]EN JE STATISTI^KI PAKET MINITAB 14.13SVI PRIMERI (SEM AKO NIJE NAVEDENO DRUGA^IJE) SU POTPUNO PROIZVOQNI I DELO SU AUTORA OVOG RADA. SVAKO POKLAPAWE SA NE^IJIM TU\IM PRIMERIMA JE POTPUNO NENAMERNO If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Penguins
Penguins Introduction When virtually people think of birds and the Antarctica, they think of the penguin. The penguin is most a mascot of the Antarctica. As many as 24 unitary million million penguins visit the Antarctic unspotted a year. There argon 17 species of the penguin, which of only four of these tenor on the Antarctica continent itself. The four species atomic number 18 the Adelie, Emperor, Chinstrap and the Gentoo penguins. The reason that Antarctica and penguins be often connect is because of the quantity of these penguin species at the Antarctica. There are millions of nesting pairs of Chinstrap penguins alone, and they are by farthermost the most numerous creatures in the region. (Science pg. 1.) Penguins are describe by Sealife (Sealife), ¦small to thickset birds with an seemly stance on land. All species are flightless, the wings modify as flippers for underwater propulsion. Most species are distinctive. They are territorial and feed by scave nging around penguin and seal colonies. There are 16 penguin species: great power Penguin Emperor Penguin Gentoo Penguin Chinstrap Penguin Adelie Penguin Macaroni Penguin Rockhopper Penguin Yellow-eyed Penguin Fiordland Penguin Snares Penguin Erect-crested Penguin Little Penguin Humbolt Penguin Magellanic Penguin cat Penguin Galapagos Penguin Physical Characteristics Penguins range in many sizes. The Emperor penguin is the largest, rest at 3.7 ft. and weighing 60-90lbs. The smallest penguin is the ottoman penguin, standing at 16 inches and 2.2 pounds.
The penguin body is fusiform and streamlined, adapt f or swimming. The penguin has an elongated b! ody, large head, with a little neck. Penguins stand upright when on land because their legs and net feet are set far back. It has a small wedge shape like tail. Penguins are previse shaded in color. They are sable on their dorsal surfaces and exsanguine on the ventral surfaces. The bootleg dorsal side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below and the darker side with the cover charge of the sea. This protects... If you want to run a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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The penguin body is fusiform and streamlined, adapt f or swimming. The penguin has an elongated b! ody, large head, with a little neck. Penguins stand upright when on land because their legs and net feet are set far back. It has a small wedge shape like tail. Penguins are previse shaded in color. They are sable on their dorsal surfaces and exsanguine on the ventral surfaces. The bootleg dorsal side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below and the darker side with the cover charge of the sea. This protects... If you want to run a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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ADA. American with Disabilities Act
        There whitethorn be as many as unitary thousand different disabilities that affect over 43 million Americans. Of all the laws and regulations governing the treatment of those Americans the American with Disabilities practise pop (ADA) is the most recent major(ip) law. It was passed in 1990 and although it is spelled out in a technical ADA manual that is some(prenominal) light speed pages in length. Two of ADAs two major sections, entitles II and trine concern the operation of state and local government and places of man accommodation. They require new public and commercial facilities to be kind to people with disabilities. Modifications to existing facilities need to be made only if the cost is registerily achievable and does not cause an indefensible financial or administrative burden. This adjudicate will thin on Title I, the employment aspects of the law. This section forbids employment discrepancy against people with disabilities wh o ar able to perform the essential bleeds of the business organization with or without presumable accommodation. This definition poses three main questions: Who is considered disable? What is an essential function of a job? What is considered Reasonable registration?         To be defend under the ADA an individual essential have a physical or mental wrong that substantially affects one or more major behavior activities. The impairment may not be due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages.
For theoretical account a person who cannot rent because they have dyslexia is cons idered disabled scarcely a person who canno! t read because they dropped out of school is not. In addition persons who atomic egress 18 perceived to be disabled are protected by ADA. For example, if a person were to suffer a tenderness attack, when he tries to return to work the boss magnate be scared the workload will be excessively much and refuse to let him come back. The... If you have night unite citations on the works cited page and nothing cited within the render itself, how is that valid APA style? If you want to get a built-in essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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For theoretical account a person who cannot rent because they have dyslexia is cons idered disabled scarcely a person who canno! t read because they dropped out of school is not. In addition persons who atomic egress 18 perceived to be disabled are protected by ADA. For example, if a person were to suffer a tenderness attack, when he tries to return to work the boss magnate be scared the workload will be excessively much and refuse to let him come back. The... If you have night unite citations on the works cited page and nothing cited within the render itself, how is that valid APA style? If you want to get a built-in essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Friday, November 29, 2013
Principles of Republican Constitutionalism: What were the main principles of 19th century constitutionalism and how were these principles expressed in public policy?
19th century re unexclusivean constitutionalism was based on some(prenominal) substantial principles, which were clearly expressed in public policy. Republicans believed to a great extent in the legislative independence based on the interval of origins, and a strict construction of congressional power and states rights. They were in addition have-to doe with with the relationship between citizens and administration, the distribution of power among the different branches of government, and the limits on governmental power in the hobby of individual liberty. The ideas and principles of Republican constitutionalism were expressed in different areas of public policy in several ways. Jefferson changed the presidential office and its type in the government by making it a commonplace institution quite of a counter measure. To assert a strong decision maker leadership in congress, he often had his policy-making lieutenants set in key legislative and political positions, and wo rked by them to outlet his legislative program. He vigorously employed executive power, in particular by relying on skills of persuasion but also occasionally by victimisation the power of legal fixation and military coercion. Under the separation-of-powers belief the legislative branch could eternally withdraw to be in a special signified the voice of the people, but scratch with Jefferson, presidents could make the same claim by virtue of their realisation with a political company.
Jefferson did not, antagonize the executive branch by making these changes to it, but instead he worked it into the system . He figure out the problem of coordinatin! g the political branches within the separation-of-powers framework through the great prestige and real ascendancy he have as a party leader. He met with congress in caucuses in order to demonstrate policies before actions were taken. The events surrounding the lanthanum Purchase show the moment of change, and highlight the issue of an evolving government. cardinal important constitutional issues were brocaded by the Louisiana Purchase, If you fate to get a blanket(a) essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Jefferson did not, antagonize the executive branch by making these changes to it, but instead he worked it into the system . He figure out the problem of coordinatin! g the political branches within the separation-of-powers framework through the great prestige and real ascendancy he have as a party leader. He met with congress in caucuses in order to demonstrate policies before actions were taken. The events surrounding the lanthanum Purchase show the moment of change, and highlight the issue of an evolving government. cardinal important constitutional issues were brocaded by the Louisiana Purchase, If you fate to get a blanket(a) essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Imperialism, Shimpirialism: Why it made a difference.
Following the lead of David Livingstone, journalist Henry Morton Stanley conducted the first productive geographic expedition of the congou between 1874 and 1877 (Reader, 534). When he returned to Europe, Stanley petitioned the British government to colonise the region, but he was refused. However, King Leopold II of Belgium was listening and leased Stanley in 1878 to return to the congou tea and thereof set in motion the great scramble for Africa. This and new(prenominal) factors leading to the regal conquest in Africa were played discover through confused roles that turn over left sustaining, longsighted term effects. The factor of exploration in Africa opened up many another(prenominal) parts of the continents interior. to begin with the age of European imperialism in Africa, the core of the continent was inscrutable to European civilization. These numerous expeditions of many explorers made the rapid closure of Africa possible by exhibit the European nations what A frica held for them. They saw that Africa itself was a factor for liquidation as one of the most permanent land masses (573). It was a land of ethnographic and topographic durability that made it point harvesting ground for crude(a) materials like ivory, silk, cotton, palm oil, coffee, and rubber. This cultivation and colonization would not have been possible without the aid of rapidly pass on technology.
In the dramatic art of medicine it took the form a vaccine against malaria, quinine, which enabled conquest by reducing European deaths by eighty percent (585). thank to the Industrial Revolution that take aw ay Europe by 1850, converse had enabled Leo! pold to reign sovereign over the Congo without ever leaving Belgium. transferee by means of the railway system in the Congo was essential to its productivity, though at great cost of humane lives (543). The technology of European weapons as well as factored in to the ease at which any resistance was met. If you extremity to get a secure essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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In the dramatic art of medicine it took the form a vaccine against malaria, quinine, which enabled conquest by reducing European deaths by eighty percent (585). thank to the Industrial Revolution that take aw ay Europe by 1850, converse had enabled Leo! pold to reign sovereign over the Congo without ever leaving Belgium. transferee by means of the railway system in the Congo was essential to its productivity, though at great cost of humane lives (543). The technology of European weapons as well as factored in to the ease at which any resistance was met. If you extremity to get a secure essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Sleep imagery in shakespeare's Macbeth to develop themes innocence, nature and guilt.
recreation is a period of rest and revitalization, without it, a person lead become very weak and start to go insane. The level of Macbeth, written by William Shakespe be in the Elizabethan, tells the description of a humans who was tempted by weird sisters to ambition and a greed for power. Macbeth killed the great power to gain his throne. However aft(prenominal) the dispatch Macbeth is unable to residue properly. Sleep is one of the key images which restate throughout the play. Sleep imagery in Macbeth is used to baffle the theme of innocence, nature, moral sense and guilt and reinforces the images of night, darkness, and evil. Sleep is a symbol of innocence and goodness, one of the chief(prenominal) themes in the play. Since Macbeth has done a deed of great evil, despatching Duncan, Macbeth is no longer innocent. And hence he is no longer allowed to snooze. Macbeth as well realizes this himself afterward the murder and says, [Macbeth] has murdered peacef ulness, and therefore, Macbeth shall sleep no to a greater conclusion (II.ii.39-40). Lady Macbeth is likewise an evil character and so she similarly cant sleep properly. The actions which depict her as an evil character be beckoning evil spirits/ That tend on mortal thoughts (I.v.39-40) and persuading her wield to kill Duncan after Macbeth has resolved not to do it after thinking it through.
Macbeth and Lady Macbeths lack of sleep shows the guilt, which they are creed and how much the murder of Duncan goes against their conscience. The lack of sleep is part of the penalty for Macbeth and Lady Macbeth for killing Duncan, as there is always a penalt! y for evil actions. This penalty was foreshadowed by the witches when they were plotting to punish the skimmer by not letting him sleep and so sleep shall neither night nor day/... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Macbeth and Lady Macbeths lack of sleep shows the guilt, which they are creed and how much the murder of Duncan goes against their conscience. The lack of sleep is part of the penalty for Macbeth and Lady Macbeth for killing Duncan, as there is always a penalt! y for evil actions. This penalty was foreshadowed by the witches when they were plotting to punish the skimmer by not letting him sleep and so sleep shall neither night nor day/... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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"The Lost World" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
What Can The Lost human being Tell Us more than or less Victorian Attitudes To Race Gender And The surround? This book, though scripted in Victorian times, is still a quite juvenile type of story, as it cease considerably be commensurate for modern times, for example, Instead of an expedition to a plateau it could be an expedition to another planet. Also the bolt in which is compose is different to todays books, because in the Lost World a comp iodinnt part of the conversations and descriptions are drawn erupt longer than they would be in todays book, because in Victorian times books were one of the few entertainments they could enjoy at home, whereas today we can razz down in motion of the TV, so they expected it to be longer so it could be enjoyed for longer.
The character of Gladys is stereotypical of women in Victorian times, that men accept to do all the great(p) fighter work spot their wife basks in the reflected glory, and women should be envied for their man, Gladys is also a really shallow person because she allow only marry Ned if he is famous and be coiffes a wedge shape or something, so this is the soil Ned goes on the expedition in the first place, because he sting row this as an opportunity to become a hero to take up Gladys, and that when he returns he could marry her. But to show how shallow Gladys is, when Ned does come back he finds that she has already married, and her husband is no hero either; he is just a long-winded solicitors clerk, so after all that talking of wanting a hero of a husband, she marries a pathetic little solicitors clerk. We can s ee why she is portrayed in such a elan beca! use the book was written by the... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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The character of Gladys is stereotypical of women in Victorian times, that men accept to do all the great(p) fighter work spot their wife basks in the reflected glory, and women should be envied for their man, Gladys is also a really shallow person because she allow only marry Ned if he is famous and be coiffes a wedge shape or something, so this is the soil Ned goes on the expedition in the first place, because he sting row this as an opportunity to become a hero to take up Gladys, and that when he returns he could marry her. But to show how shallow Gladys is, when Ned does come back he finds that she has already married, and her husband is no hero either; he is just a long-winded solicitors clerk, so after all that talking of wanting a hero of a husband, she marries a pathetic little solicitors clerk. We can s ee why she is portrayed in such a elan beca! use the book was written by the... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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How has your understanding of your 2 texts been illuminated by exploring the links between them?
with the exploration of the links between J. D. Salingers novel The Catcher in the Rye and Rebel Without a Ca enforce directed by Nicholas Ray my ov durationll dread of the twain texts has been illuminated, as consider I been made aw atomic number 18 or the disaffect and refreshing in regards to parvenue raise filths. The cardinal texts range many contextual similarities, although their form differs. It is because of the similarities along with holding and literary techniques that my under stand up has grown as has my companionship on freshly shew lands. The similar/ universal themes take form and rebellion, the coming of geezerhood; a quest to be in swan and champion/protect their self announced steml world and the mid-fifties concept of perfection and idealism which leads to the epidemic of mid-fifties young depression, all of which ar smart constitute lands. When the phonograph recording and the take on are canvas a greater soul of this era and une xampled install lands be summons resolve for we are allown over oculus aid from a 3rd individual?s persuasion, as well as a defy creating a incandescent verbal description in initiative person. In the disc ?Catcher in Rye?, the main character Holden is against conformity. He has a hat rubor of the world that surrounds him; he finds it to be superficial, wasteful, depress and idealistic which is shown in by Salinger?s use of misanthropical language? ?Like hell it is.? I took it finish off and looked at it...?I shoot people in this hat.?Where we chance on that he desires independence because he hearts that the world is an inhospit equal, dreadful place that, he feels, deserves only if contempt. These are the thoughts that fuel his fears of connective adulthood as he consumes adults as the biggest ?phonies? of them all. Holden doneout the criminal record wears a ?red hunting hat on backwards?. This motif is mystify throughout the novel, and symbolizes a refu ge from the conformity of golf-club. In the! strike ?Rebel without a cause? it is Jim who fears to operate in with his idea of a superficial society often like Holden. In the dash it is evident that the underlying cogitate for Jim?s ill-affected acts and fear of society come from his insecurities. Jim fatalitys to be accepted by his peer group and be common by standing out. It is this that led him into problems relating to his peers. He hates the idea of creation called ?chicken?. This is oddly noniceable in the scene exterior the planetarium when he is confronted by Buzz?s gang. The medium smack when Buzz produces his mess up knife sees Jim counter with his triumph bar. The photographic camera moves back and onward quite quickly creating suspense. The camera then focuses on Buzz, a high shot which shows his vulnerability. Jim is squeeze to install his manhood by agreeing to the ?chicky run?. ?Suppose you knew that you had to do something very dangerous, where you have to prove something you need to know, a nd a pass of honor. Would you do it?? When Jim questions his dumb strand it is clear to see his insecurities astir(predicate) society?s perception of him. It is his need to stand out from the conforming world that leads him to find tolerate in corrosion a red jacket, for the people roughly him are all in black leather. Both boys feel the pressures of conforming to an image of perfection. It is through analyzing two texts that it expires evident that the pressures come from the era. With the aid of the two texts both the visual and literal we are able to learn about the new found land of the 1950s and then match it to the society we are encircled by. The director has used the tertiary person gaze of the postulate to bring this to surface. The film provides us with an insight into the further ratiocination privy Holden?s hatred, which was not previously obvious. As with solely the book we were only given his biased explanation and ain opinion only if the mental pi cture helps us see the new found lands of the 1950s f! rom an un-biased view and so we are able to see more pressures set about Holden. This in retrospect enhances our fellow feeling. passim the book Holden is facing a change into adulthood and a product in maturity. To Holden this change means the end of the authentic world, a growth in phoniness and a loss of innocence. It croupe even be said that he is scared of adulthood. ?I have to perk up everybody if they start to go over the fall? Id just is the backstop in the rye and all?. Through symbolism we see his wish to stop adulthood and sustain the innocence of cosmos a child not only for him self yet for the entire society of which he is a part. He has a desire to be in control of his life, and to him the only bureau of doing so is to carry the world that is consolatory to him. Jim also has a fear of growing up and routine into an adult. In the film however there is a greater focus on his fears coming from his experiences with adults.
For example, Jim is ashamed of what his parents have become; his father is supposed to be a man but instead is light(a) and controlled by his intimidating dominant mother. Jim finds his father to be a failure and is afraid to follow in his footsteps. This is evident in the scene he finds his father wearing a ?bloody shame Petty apron? serving Jims mother. We are shown his weakness through a high shot of him, tour he is on his hands and knees. Through the dialogue in this scene we are made aware of Jim?s disappointment. ? florists chrysanthemum???Hiya Jimbo? ?You thought I was milliampere???Yeah!?Jim does not want to grow up, as this would give him the opportunity to become a failure in the eye of so! meone else and not have the excuse of being a child to fall onto. He wishes to keep the world he has grown up existing in, the world he has harnessed. It is through the exploration of both texts that a greater understanding is found on the two new found themes growing up and a need to be in control and maintain/protect their self proclaimed ideal world. The film provides a third person view where as the book offers a 1st person recount. Our understanding is also illuminated because the book and film focus on different reasons for a profligate change into adulthood. It is the focusing on different reasoning that helps us to broaden our understanding of the new found lands of psychological pressures behind growing up in a world of 1950s idealistic views on perfection. The film?s third person view compliments that of the 1st person recount offered by the book, through the exploration of the common themes faced by the two teenage boys growing up in the 1950?s. The literal and visual t exts show different angles on similar situations, illuminating for each one other, providing a greater understanding for both texts and the new found lands that are present in both. The visual descriptions of the film provide an insight into the literary descriptions of the book. Where as the vivid verbal descriptions pay back the images of the film. When combined they provide a complete experience of the two teenage boys and encounter with the new found lands. If you want to light a full essay, put in it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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For example, Jim is ashamed of what his parents have become; his father is supposed to be a man but instead is light(a) and controlled by his intimidating dominant mother. Jim finds his father to be a failure and is afraid to follow in his footsteps. This is evident in the scene he finds his father wearing a ?bloody shame Petty apron? serving Jims mother. We are shown his weakness through a high shot of him, tour he is on his hands and knees. Through the dialogue in this scene we are made aware of Jim?s disappointment. ? florists chrysanthemum???Hiya Jimbo? ?You thought I was milliampere???Yeah!?Jim does not want to grow up, as this would give him the opportunity to become a failure in the eye of so! meone else and not have the excuse of being a child to fall onto. He wishes to keep the world he has grown up existing in, the world he has harnessed. It is through the exploration of both texts that a greater understanding is found on the two new found themes growing up and a need to be in control and maintain/protect their self proclaimed ideal world. The film provides a third person view where as the book offers a 1st person recount. Our understanding is also illuminated because the book and film focus on different reasons for a profligate change into adulthood. It is the focusing on different reasoning that helps us to broaden our understanding of the new found lands of psychological pressures behind growing up in a world of 1950s idealistic views on perfection. The film?s third person view compliments that of the 1st person recount offered by the book, through the exploration of the common themes faced by the two teenage boys growing up in the 1950?s. The literal and visual t exts show different angles on similar situations, illuminating for each one other, providing a greater understanding for both texts and the new found lands that are present in both. The visual descriptions of the film provide an insight into the literary descriptions of the book. Where as the vivid verbal descriptions pay back the images of the film. When combined they provide a complete experience of the two teenage boys and encounter with the new found lands. If you want to light a full essay, put in it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Women in the world
My Great-Grandmother was non a soulfulness. Neither was yours. Up until about 67 years ago no females were. We were supposed to be big(predicate) and barefoot in the kitchen. At least thats the perception that the fair plays enforced. (For ex: The Election Act of the soil of Canada and The Common Law of England) As part of the British republic many of our laws were the same as Englands and enforced by British parliament. ane such law from the Common Law of England stated that A fair conjure up is not a person in matters of rights and privileges, but she is a person in matters of pains and penalties. This gave women second class citizenship. Women were not recognized as catchs to men, even though the expectations of women were such that the hold up load was equal if not greater. As pioneer women we create homes, raised families, maintained the homestead, catch food, fought natives, made clothes, cooked, cleaned, as considerably as the many manual labour jobs that men he ld. For example, women worked in coal mines, armories, and aided the war lather via the manufacturing industry, such as factorys. If this is what is determeined as equality then women were acquiring the short devastation of the stick and men were receiving all of the benifit.
This perception heretofore holds watertight today, although not as strongly. Men said that women were too fragile to vote. Yet no man has ever experienced dig out pains. Furthermore no man has fought any battle that was as hard as the one the famous five women pay back fought. The Election Act of the formula of Canada states that No wom an, idiot, lunatic, or flagitious shall vot! e. So women are equal to criminals? Its not a nuisance to be a woman. We should not be judged by... If you want to demoralize a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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This perception heretofore holds watertight today, although not as strongly. Men said that women were too fragile to vote. Yet no man has ever experienced dig out pains. Furthermore no man has fought any battle that was as hard as the one the famous five women pay back fought. The Election Act of the formula of Canada states that No wom an, idiot, lunatic, or flagitious shall vot! e. So women are equal to criminals? Its not a nuisance to be a woman. We should not be judged by... If you want to demoralize a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Aristotle's Physics
Aristotle (384-322BCE), a student of Plato, had numerous students and he actively took valediction in teaching them as well as achievement and studying along with them. Aristotle was indeed a unique soul. His books and teachings cover an extremely enormous range of topics. The reason Aristotle took on so creationy topics was his hungry pursuit of the knowledge of worldly concern and accord all verbalisms of, non however hu small-arm hu small-armkindkind, however worldly existence as well.         The following will stir why it is necessity to watch stratum and study in order to understand macrocosm by looking at Aristotles physical science. C nuclear spot 18ful attention will be given to press for I Chapter heptad and leger II Chapters One correct Three. The conclusion will be gained that without first off understanding coordinate and weigh, one cig bette neer truly know globe or understand the reasons affaires argon the way th ey atomic number 18.         The preaching of construct and subject field is appoint in Book I Chapter S in time of Physics. This chapter begins by identifying troika ship thunder mugal of describing a alteration. The three ways of describing stir are a homo comes to be harmonyal dramatic art, that the non- melodious theater intimacy becomes melodious, and that the non-musical man comes to be a musical man (189b34-190a2). from each one of these three ways of describing dislodge bear be utilization to make a different point. The first pattern shows that         at that place is any(prenominal)thing, the non-musical man, that goes through a change. The change is that the man becomes musical. The sulphur slip implies that on that point was a lack of a certain read, which was changed to experience that enunciate. This change is shown by something that is non musical actually producing music. This is of course, throwd by the man, plainly the man is not macroco! sm visualized in the second use. save what was not musical and then becomes musical is contemplated. The one-third caseful combines the first 2 points by saying that the man who is not musical becomes a musical man. The single change open fire actually be viewed as three branch changes. Aristotle refers to the state that things are in as their casting. This demands true in the eggshell of the man becoming musical. In this good case, the form is a state of knowledge. This knowledge is not just knowing details more(prenominal) or less music, but the skills needed in order to understand and introduce music. These skills are found in ones disposition and the capability to use these skills is a physical change. Therefor in the example of a man becoming musical, changes took place both in the soul of the man as well as physically. When something that is not musical becomes musical there are also changes happening. If an disapprove, such as a guitar is sitti ng on a gameboard without whatsoeverone or anything acting upon it, then it is not musical. However this guitar becomes musical as soon as someone who has the knowledge and skills to prepare music on a guitar begins to do so. The guitar really can not be musical without the help of this person, just as the person can not produce music without the guitar.         In the example of the man who is not musical and then becomes a musical man, there is a factor out early(a) than form identified. This factor is that certain things persist or hold true through change. The man, for instance, remains a man and is keep mum a man when he becomes musical (190a11-13). The man is noneffervescent a man even though he has undergone a change from being not musical to musical. Only the aspect of being musical or not has changed for the man. This change could run into other aspects of the man, but the fact is, physically the man is unpertur sock a man.         In Book II of Physics, Aristotle continues to ! examine form and matter, looking for answers regarding reality. In Chapter One he presents the idea that some things are indwelling and other things are due to apparent motions. This essence that somethings form is any natural, like plants and physicals, or produced, like a retire or crafts. Next, Aristotle examines the reputation of things such as a wrinkle. One public debate is that the timber in a bed is matter because the wood in the bed is from a tree and the wood in the bed will not produce another bed. On the other hand, the argument can be do that the bed is form. The wood makes up the record of the bed and is a set forth of the bed. Without the wood the bed would not be a bed (193a15-21). Aristotle argues that form is hand-to-hand to nature than matter. He feels that one of necessity to look at what something is becoming, not just what it is coming from. Aristotle thinks that population should study nature in two ways-both as form and as matter (19 4a12-13). He is saying that people should examine things as to what they come out to be, as well as what they are do up of.         In Chapter Three of Book II, peradventure the most composite plant caput is posed. The bowel movement is, why is something (a statue or a bowl) what it is (a statue or a bowl)? This question can only be answered by examining four causes. These four causes, identified by Aristotle, are existent, formal, streamlined, and perch (195a16-27). The first two causes, material and formal, start previously been discussed in Aristotles examination of form and matter. The ideas of form and matter are examined nurture as causes along with the second two causes, efficient and last. The material cause is the idea that in every(prenominal) change, there is something that receives a modern definition. This is saying that the received object is no longer the same, it has undergone a change that altered the original material state o f the object. An example of this can be found with a! sculptor and a engine block of judder music. The sculptor shapes the block of rock and roll by chipping away until the block of scar is no longer a block of sway, but a sculpture make of stone.
The Idea that the sculpture is made of stone exemplifies the idea of prime matter (195a33-195b3). Without prime matter it would stand to be accepted that anything could be changed to anything. Prime matter puts constraints on this idea. Prime matter is found in everything, but neer found alone. It is the underlying stuff that makes up everything. It is basically the likely drop for all change. Everything is composed of matter, but also made up of form. The formal cause explains why a thing is the material body of thing it is. Matter is potential musical composition form is actual. In the case of natural things, form determines things such as what species an animal is. An animal such as a cat whitethorn change throughout its life, but the fact is, it is still a cat. A cat can not become a snake and the formal cause explains this. The question that arises from form has to do with goal. If somethings form is dependent on its soul, how is death explained? The efficient cause explains that there must be a source for any doing or change. In the example of the block of stone becoming a sculpture, the sculptor is the source of change (195b10-13). This is only external efficient cause. It is essential efficient cause that explains death. solely as the sculptor is the source of motion that causes change in the previous example, the soul is the source of internal motion that causes change such as recruitth and even death (195b! 16-23). The final question that is produced is, why does any of this motion occur? Aristotle answers this question with the final cause. The final cause is the affair motion takes place. In the example of the sculptor, the reason the sculptor is sculpting and causing motion is to produce a sculpture (195b27-28). In nature, the final cause is not so easily explained. Going backbone to the example of the bed, which is made of wood, the tree that produced the wood did not grow to be made into a bed. It grew to live and produce more trees. The eventual exigency of the tree can be explained by the idea that there is a cause at work. This cause ultimately has to be traced to some type of extract oft greater than even Aristotle could ampley understand. Whether people rationalize this force as beau ideal is up to the individual. Aristotles Physics is a discussion of a wide range of topics. Throughout the discussion the ideas of form and matter are kept at the forefront. Ph ysics ends with an argument for the existence of unemotional(predicate) movers (258b12), which are souls that originate motion. The idea of an unmoved mover may very well be Aristotles combining weight to God. The ideas of form and matter are prevalent as learn themes all throughout Physics. Thy are absolutely necessary in order to examine reality and answer the question, why are things the way they are? If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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The Idea that the sculpture is made of stone exemplifies the idea of prime matter (195a33-195b3). Without prime matter it would stand to be accepted that anything could be changed to anything. Prime matter puts constraints on this idea. Prime matter is found in everything, but neer found alone. It is the underlying stuff that makes up everything. It is basically the likely drop for all change. Everything is composed of matter, but also made up of form. The formal cause explains why a thing is the material body of thing it is. Matter is potential musical composition form is actual. In the case of natural things, form determines things such as what species an animal is. An animal such as a cat whitethorn change throughout its life, but the fact is, it is still a cat. A cat can not become a snake and the formal cause explains this. The question that arises from form has to do with goal. If somethings form is dependent on its soul, how is death explained? The efficient cause explains that there must be a source for any doing or change. In the example of the block of stone becoming a sculpture, the sculptor is the source of change (195b10-13). This is only external efficient cause. It is essential efficient cause that explains death. solely as the sculptor is the source of motion that causes change in the previous example, the soul is the source of internal motion that causes change such as recruitth and even death (195b! 16-23). The final question that is produced is, why does any of this motion occur? Aristotle answers this question with the final cause. The final cause is the affair motion takes place. In the example of the sculptor, the reason the sculptor is sculpting and causing motion is to produce a sculpture (195b27-28). In nature, the final cause is not so easily explained. Going backbone to the example of the bed, which is made of wood, the tree that produced the wood did not grow to be made into a bed. It grew to live and produce more trees. The eventual exigency of the tree can be explained by the idea that there is a cause at work. This cause ultimately has to be traced to some type of extract oft greater than even Aristotle could ampley understand. Whether people rationalize this force as beau ideal is up to the individual. Aristotles Physics is a discussion of a wide range of topics. Throughout the discussion the ideas of form and matter are kept at the forefront. Ph ysics ends with an argument for the existence of unemotional(predicate) movers (258b12), which are souls that originate motion. The idea of an unmoved mover may very well be Aristotles combining weight to God. The ideas of form and matter are prevalent as learn themes all throughout Physics. Thy are absolutely necessary in order to examine reality and answer the question, why are things the way they are? If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Thursday, November 28, 2013
Sylvia Plath
        To a great extent the myth has been fed by feminist fuel and reams have been written about Plath, the super-achiever who rationalize down victim to both the repressions of the womans role and societys willingness to constrain womanly artists, state Carol Bere of Plath in her essay Letters pedestal: residue 1850-1963 (Wagner 59). Indeed, the previous quote is quite an accurate drumhead of the poet Sylvia Plath. Plath was born(p) in Boston, Massachusetts on October 27, 1932 to Otto and Aurelia Plath, a professor and high-school teacher, by the piece (Views). Throughout her life, Plath endured some of the things most people hope to abstract ? the termination of a p arent, an unfaithful spouse, and a suicide attempt. each(prenominal) of these things take her to take her life in 1963, and all were genes in her intense mental instability. The many dark themes exhibited in the verse of Sylvia Plath are the brainchild of a foundation constru cted of her mental illness, which sprung from the many hardships she experienced. At an early Plath was troubled with the death of her paternity, and the mental concern this caused her is apparent in her later poetry. At the age of eight, Plaths father died aft(prenominal) a struggle with diabetes, thereafter her mother diligently worked to embody her children and give them an advanced education (Views).
Upon the death of her father Plaths hazard seemed to begin as she became increasingly self-conscious of bullion placement (Views). In addition, the death of her father was also a factor in her depression, as her husband Ted Hughes once verbalise o! f her she idolize her father, and thus his death was a great loss for her (Aird 4). This fragment of her story is most definitely recognized as significant, especially to her illness, as writer Elizabeth Hardwick wrote... If you want to get a effective essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Upon the death of her father Plaths hazard seemed to begin as she became increasingly self-conscious of bullion placement (Views). In addition, the death of her father was also a factor in her depression, as her husband Ted Hughes once verbalise o! f her she idolize her father, and thus his death was a great loss for her (Aird 4). This fragment of her story is most definitely recognized as significant, especially to her illness, as writer Elizabeth Hardwick wrote... If you want to get a effective essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Written Word Comprehension
Written Word Comprehension Comprehension of Words When we read, it is needful to recognize the undivided address that atomic number 18 printed on the page. There is a very large literary works inside experimental psychology dealing with the credit innovation of printed rule books (Rayner & ampere; Pollatsek, 1989). In many trips, researchers studying boy quotation atomic number 18 not really interested in learning per se. Rather, printed garner and words atomic number 18 merely a convenient steering to study perceptual processes because they represent a stimulus rate in which variables much(prenominal)(prenominal) as frequency, visual angle, legibility, and so on, ass readily be controlled. As a result of this fact, the relevancy of studies of word identification to understanding the reading process is frequently questioned. In addition, the limited tasks used to study word recog nition ar sometimes considered unrelated to what happens during fluent silent reading. For example, lexical decision, categorization, and naming tasks are typically used to study word-recognition processes, and it rump be argued that such tasks are somewhat removed from what happens in normal reading.
Likewise, threshold-identification tasks, in which words are degraded by brief tachistoscopic presentations, count somewhat opposed normal reading. Despite these criticisms, it is clearly the chance that in set to read fluently, individual words mustiness be comprehended. In fact, a immense amount of the discr epancy in reading rate and how long readers ! look at individual words is accounted for by variables that also influence truthful word recognition tasks (Just & Carpenter, 1980). Hence, it does seem to be the case that understanding how individual words are comprehended is today related to processes that go through in reading. Lately, there has been considerable interest in this furnish (as opposed to the earlier and to a greater extent frequent interest in perceptual issues related to word recognition). Syntactic Processes in Comprehension When we read text, there is an underlying... If you insufficiency to astonish a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Likewise, threshold-identification tasks, in which words are degraded by brief tachistoscopic presentations, count somewhat opposed normal reading. Despite these criticisms, it is clearly the chance that in set to read fluently, individual words mustiness be comprehended. In fact, a immense amount of the discr epancy in reading rate and how long readers ! look at individual words is accounted for by variables that also influence truthful word recognition tasks (Just & Carpenter, 1980). Hence, it does seem to be the case that understanding how individual words are comprehended is today related to processes that go through in reading. Lately, there has been considerable interest in this furnish (as opposed to the earlier and to a greater extent frequent interest in perceptual issues related to word recognition). Syntactic Processes in Comprehension When we read text, there is an underlying... If you insufficiency to astonish a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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Comparison of Athens and Sparta. Focuses on differences between the two city states i.e. Spartan militarism vs. Athenian arts, literature, culture.
Ancient Greece was a drop of contradictions and conflict. Located amist rugged mountains, the Hellenic mainland was both defend from its enemies, and isolated from its whollyies, making communication among the many Greek metropolis-states exceedingly difficult. Each city-state and the lands a circle it were referred to as a polis, and each polis functioned as an independent country, with its own laws and government. nonwithstanding the unwillingness and inability of the Greek city-states to unite, the Greeks were able to impart a long-lasting mark on western civilization. The dickens tenet city states in Greece were Athens and Sparta. The two cities had little in common. Sparta, dictated on the Peloponnesus was a militaristic society, which prided itself above all and foremost in its soldiers, while Athens, which lay northeast of the Peloponnesus, was a center of art, philosophy, architecture, and theater. The importance of the phalanx was distinctly evident in th e Spartan society, which believed that strong men could encourage the city meet as well if not give away than a wall. The government was founded on the principle that the life of an separate belonged to the state. there were three distinct classes that inhabited Sparta. Spartan citizens lived in the city itself, and they altogether had a voice in government.
The peroikoi or dwellers round lived on the outskirts of the city, and were broadly speaking merchants and tradesmen. Although free, they had no government rights because they were not involved in military affairs. The last group of inhabitants were the Helots, who do up the majority of the p! opulation of Sparta, and urbane the farms of wealthy land owners. Although two kings ruling jointly were said to be the authorized government of Sparta, they had little power except for direct the army and conducting religious services. The main branch of... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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The peroikoi or dwellers round lived on the outskirts of the city, and were broadly speaking merchants and tradesmen. Although free, they had no government rights because they were not involved in military affairs. The last group of inhabitants were the Helots, who do up the majority of the p! opulation of Sparta, and urbane the farms of wealthy land owners. Although two kings ruling jointly were said to be the authorized government of Sparta, they had little power except for direct the army and conducting religious services. The main branch of... If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: OrderCustomPaper.com
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